•I 


I 


STUDIES 


GENERAL    HISTORY. 


BY 
MARY  D.l  SHELDON, 

FORMERLY  PROFESSOR  OF   HISTORY  IN    WELLE8LEY  COLLEGE,  AND 
SCHOOL.   N.Y. 


Stufcenf *  lEtitttotL 


;  Human  affairs  are  neither  to  be  laughed  at  nor  wept  over,  but 
to  be  understood." 


BOSTON: 
D.   C.   HEATH   &   COMPANY. 

1892. 


COPYRIGHT,  SEPT.  30,  1885, 
BT  MARY  SHELDON  BARNES. 


TYPOGRAPHY  BY  PRESSWORK  BY 

J.  8.  CCSHING  &  Co.,  BERWICK  &  SMITH, 

BOSTON.  BOSTON. 


TO 

MY   PUPILS    AT   WELLESLEY  COLLEGE 
AND  AT  OS  WE  GO, 

TO    WHOSE   WARM    ENCOURAGEMENT  AND    SYM- 
PATHY THIS  BOOK  IS  LARGELY  DUE,  IT 
IS  MOST  LOVINGLY  DEDICATED. 

MARY  D.  SHELDON. 


2221032 


THE  MAKING  OF  HISTORY. 


To  THE  STUDENT : — 

How,  then,  is  history  made?  If  a  man  wanted  to  write  the 
history  of  England,  and  no  one  before  had  ever  attempted  it, 
so  that  no  books  existed  from  which  he  could  read  it,  how 
would  he  go  to  work  to  find  it  out?  He  would  go  to  the  "origi- 
nal sources,"  as  people  say ;  that  is,  he  would  go  to  London, 
to  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  hunt  through  offices,  libraries, 
and  museums  for  all  the  old  records,  despatches,  and  letters, 
for  reports  of  parliamentary  debates,  for  the  manuscripts  of  the 
old  chroniclers,  for  copies  of  treaties  and  laws  ;  and  from  all 
these  things  he  could  find  what  had  been  the  government  of 
England,  what  powers  she  had,  from  time  to  time,  given  to  her 
king,  her  parliament,  and  the  general  mass  of  her  people  ;  what 
classes  of  society  were  recognized  by  law,  and  how  each  class 
was  regarded  by  the  government  and  by  other  classes.  He 
would  discover  what  affairs  of  national  importance  had  hap- 
pened, what  had  been  the  wars  of  England,  and  what  she  had 
deemed  worth  fighting  for ;  what  nations  she  had  been  con- 
nected with,  and  in  what  relations.  And  as  he  went  along, 
he  would  note  down  all  these  things  as  material  for  his  history. 

Further  than  this,  he  would  travel  England  over  from  end  to 
end,  and  see  what  sorts  of  buildings  these  English  had  left 
behind  them  at  different  times  ;  he  would  examine  all  the  old 
cathedrals,  castles,  and  town  walls,  study  the  tombs  in  churches 
and  graveyards,  look  out  for  all  the  old  bits  of  painting  or 


VI  THE   MAKING   OF   HISTORY. 

sculpture  still  remaining,  and  thus  discover  what  had  been  the 
state  of  material  civilization  at  this  or  that  time,  and  what  prog- 
ress had  been  made  as  centuries  passed.  These  old  structures 
would  tell  him  what  the  English  knew  of  building  and  engineer- 
ing, of  working  in  stone  and  wood  and  metal,  how  much  wealth 
they  had  and  how  they  spent  it ;  these  old  bits  of  architecture, 
painting,  and  sculpture  would  tell  him  what  they  admired  and 
loved  as  beautiful. 

Not  even  this  would  finish  his  work  ;  it  would  be  his  business 
to  read  the  English  poetry  and  the  English  stories,  the  sermons 
of  famous  preachers  and  the  speeches  of  great  orators,  for 
"  out  of  the  abundance  of  the  heart  the  mouth  speaketh."  In 
this  way  he  would  best  learn  the  English  character  and  temper ; 
he  would  know  what  they  liked  and  disliked,  how  they  thought 
and  felt  about  all  that  went  on  around  them. 

Meanwhile,  throughout  his  studies  of  chronicles,  of  laws,  of 
buildings  and  writings,  he  would  note  what  men  were  oftenest 
mentioned  and  most  highly  honored,  and  thus  discover  the  ideal 
of  the  English  folk,  that  is, — what  sort  of  men  they  tried  to 
be  themselves  aud  wanted  their  children  to  become. 

After  all  these  inquiries  and  labors,  our  historian  would  at 
last  be  ready  to  sit  down  peacefully  and  write  a  history  of  Eng- 
land ;  that  is,  he  would  embody  in  a  continuous  narrative  all 
that  he  knew  of  the  growth,  development,  and  character  of  the 
English  people ;  if  his  judgment  were  perfect,  if  he  were  a 
man  without  prejudice  and  with  a  perfect  sense  of  the  relative 
value  of  facts,  if  he  knew  how  to  tell  what  he  knew  so  that 
all  men  could  read  and  understand,  and  if,  at  last,  he  lived  to 
complete  his  work,  no  one  would  care  to  write  a  second  serious 
history  of  England.  Such  a  work  would  be  unnecessary  ;  it 
would  be  easier  far  for  a  man  to  read  this  history,  even  if  it 


THE   MAKING   OF   HISTORY.  vii 

were  rather  dry,  than  to  go  searching  through  yellow,  dusty,  and 
badly  written  manuscripts,  through  the  heavy  statute-books, 
and  through  volumes  of  half-forgotten  literature,  to  say  nothing 
of  traveling  over  England,  exploring  all  the  old  remains  and 
monuments.  But  since  men's  judgments  widely  vary,  and  since 
the  observation  of  any  single  mind  is  imperfect,  the  work  must 
be  done  again  and  again,  and  that,  too,  from  the  original 
sources,  by  different  men  with  all  their  different  points  of  view 
and  different  bents  of  genius.  By  reading  and  comparing 
these  various  histories,  which  would  still  be  easier  far  than  to 
make  one  for  one's  self,  we  should  get  a  just  idea  of  the 
history  of  England. 

We  Americans  are  situated  something  like  the  man  who  has  a 
history  to  write  from  original  sources.  We  are  called  upon  every 
day  to  judge  of  laws,  of  men,  of  events,  of  poems  and  stories, 
to  decide  between  them,  to  see  what  they  mean  and  where  they 
are  leading  us  ;  and  since  we  are  citizens  of  a  republic,  we  must 
not  only  see  what  they  mean  and  where  they  are  leading  us, 
but  decide  whether  these  laws  shall  become  the  laws  of  the 
land,  whether  these  poems  and  stories  shall  become  popular 
among  us  and  so  come  to  mark  our  character,  whether  we  shall 
make  this  man  or  that  great  and  powerful  among  us.  In  short, 
we  Americans  are  all  making  history  —  an  American  history, 
of  a  sort  that  no  man  has  ever  made  before  us,  and  which 
lies  entirely  in  our  own  hands  to  shape  according  to  our  best 
judgment  of  all  that  goes  on  about  us  from  year  to  year. 

Now  this  book  is  not  a  history,  but  a  collection  of  historical 
materials  ;  it  contains  just  the  sort  of  things  that  historians 
must  deal  with  when  they  want  to  describe  or  judge  any  period 
of  history,  and  just  the  kind  of  things,  moreover,  which  we 
Americans  must  constantly  attend  to  and  think  about.  In 


Vlll  THE   MAKING   OF   HISTORY. 

Greek  history,  it  gives  bare  chronicles  of  deeds,  pictures  of 
buildings  and  statues,  extracts  from  speeches,  laws,  poems  ;  from 
these  materials  you  must  form  your  own  judgment  of  the  Greeks, 
discover  their  style  of  thinking,  acting,  living,  feeling ;  you 
must,  in  short,  imagine  that  you  yourself  are  to  write  a  Greek 
history,  or  that  you  are  a  Greek  citizen,  called  upon  to  judge 
of  the  life  about  you.  To  help  you  in  this,  I  have  inserted 
in  the  midst  of  the  material  such  questions  and  problems  as 
the  historian  or  citizen  must  always  be  asking  himself,  or 
rather  must  always  be  putting  to  the  laws,  events,  poetry,  and 
ruins  which  he  studies,  whether  they  belong  to  times  and 
peoples  far  away  or  near  at  hand.  In  this  way,  you  can 
learn  how  to  judge  and  interpret  what  you -see  before  you  in 
your  own  country,  and  help  to  make  of  America  that  which 
she  may  become,  —  the  strongest,  noblest,  finest  nation  in  all 
the  world. 

Hoping  that  you  will  take  kindly  to  this  new  way  of  studying 
history,  I  am 

Very  cordially  and  sincerely  your  friend, 

MARY  D.  SHELDON. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


t  PAGE. 

PREFACE v-viii 

CIVILIZED  WORLD  BEFORE  776  B.C. 3-29 

Introductory 3 

A.  STUDY  ON  EGYPT 4-16 

Historical  sources  and  authorities 4 

Organization 4-5 

Leading  events,  works,  and  names 5-6 

Memphite  period 5 

Theban  period 6 

List  of  objects  found  in  tombs         .                          .         .  7 

Illustrative  extracts  from  Egyptian  literature         .         .  9-15 

B.  STUDY  ON  TIGRO-EUPHRATES  VALLEY     ....  16-23 

Historical  sources  and  authorities 16 

Periods  of  history 16 

Leading  events,  works,  and  names 16-18 

Illustrative    extracts    from   Assyrian  and  Babylonian 

remains .                 18-22 

C.  STUDY  ON  PHOENICIA 23-25 

Historical  authorities 23 

Leading  events,  works,  and  names 23-24 

Illustrative  extracts 24-25 

D.  STUDY  ON  THE  JEWS 25-29 

Historical  sources  and  authorities 25 

Periods  of  history 25 

Leading  events,  names,  and  works  ....  26 

Illustrative  extracts  from  Bible 27-29 

HELLAS,  1000  (?)-338  B.C 32-118 

Introductory 32-33 

A.  STUDY  ON  HEROIC  AGE 33^17 

Historical  sources  and  authorities 33 

Famous  events,  men,  and  works  of  Heroic  Age  .  .  33-36 

List  of  Greek  gods,  with  attributes  ....  36 

Illustrative  extracts  from  Homer 37-47 


X  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

PAGE. 

B.  STUDY  ON  HISTORIC  GREECE,  776-500  ....  47-72 

Historical  sources  and  authorities        ....  47 

I.   General  Hellenic  development  .....  48-56 

Organization  of  people 48 

Leading  events 49-50 

Famous  names  and  works 51-53 

Illustrative  extracts  from  original  sources    .        .  53-56 

II.   Constitution  and  laws  of  Sparta     .  56-60 

Spartan  constitution 57 

Institutions  of  Lycurgus,  with  illustrative  ex- 
tracts and  stories 58-60 

III.   Development  of  Athenian  constitution  .        .        .  61-72 

Athens  before  Solon 61-63 

Constitution 63 

Legislation  of  Solon 63-65 

Constitution        .......  64 

Tyranny  of  Pisistratids 65-69 

Legislation  of  Cleisthenes 69-71 

Constitution 70-71 

C.  STUDY  ON  PERSIAN  WARS 72-87 

Original  authorities 72 

I.  First  Persian  War  (abridged  from  Herodotus)       .  73-76 

II.  Interval  of  Preparation    (abridged  from   Hero- 

dotus)          76-80 

III.  Second  Persian  War  (abridged  from  Herodotus),  80-87 

D.  STUDY  ON  THE  ATHENIAN  LEADERSHIP  OR  THE  AGE 

OF  PERICLES 87-113 

Historical  sources  and  authorities        ....  87 

Summary  of  leading  events 89-96 

List  of  famous  names  and  works         ....  96-101 

Illustrative  extracts  and  stories  from  original  sources,  102-112 
E.F.  SPARTAN,  THEBAN,  AND  MACEDONIAN  LEADERSHIPS, 

431-338  B.C 113-117 

Historical  sources  and  authorities        ....  113 

Summary  of  leading  events 113-117 

HELLENISTIC   OR  ALEXANDRIAN   CONQUESTS  AND   KING- 
DOMS    119-127 

Historical  sources  and  authorities        .        .        .        .  119 

Summary  of  leading  events 119-121 

List  of  famous  names  and  works         ....  122-126 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  xi 

PAGE. 

UOME 129-285 

Introductory 129-130 

A.B.    I.  STUDY  OF  REGAL  ROME  AND  PRA>PUNIC  RE- 
PUBLIC         130-151 

Organization  and  constitutions 130-136 

Illustrative  extract  from  Livy 136-137 

Summary  of  leading  events 137-140 

Notable  works  and  innovations  of  period    .         .         .  140-143 

List  of  religious  feasts 143-144 

Remains  of  Twelve  Tables 145-146 

Illustrative  stories  from  Livy 147-151 

B.   II.  STUDY  ON  REPUBLICAN  ROME,  PUNIC  PERIOD        .  152-169 

Authorities 152 

Note  on  Carthage 152 

Summary  of  events,  265-201  B.c 153-155 

Summary  of  events,  201-146  B.C 155-158 

Extracts  from  Livy  illustrative  of  Second  Punic  War,  158-162 

List  of  famous  men,  deeds,  and  works         .         .         .  162-163 
Incidents,  extracts,  and  facts  illustrative  of  later  Punic 

period 164-169 

B.  ILL     STUDY    ON     REPUBLICAN     ROME,    POST-PUNIC 

PERIOD       .                170-189 

Authorities 170 

Summaries  of  events 170-175 

List  of  famous  men,  works,  and  deeds        .        .        .  175-176 

Illustrative  extracts  from  original  sources  .        .        .  177-189 

C.  I.  STUDY  ON  PAGAN  EMPIRE,  AUGUSTUS  TO  DIOCLE- 

TIAN    192-221 

Authorities 192 

Imperial  organization  according  to  Augustus  .  .  193-195 

List  of  emperors,  events,  and  works  ....  196-205 

List  of  famous  imperial  works  and  names  .  .  .  206-211 

Extracts  from  original  sources  illustrative  of  period  .  212-221 

THE  TEUTONIC  BARBARIANS  BEFORE  476  A.D.  .  .  .  222-227 

Authorities 222 

Teutonic  land-tenure 222 

Extracts  from  «  Germania  "  of  Tacitus  .  .  .  222-225 

Extracts  from  Teutonic  sources 226 

C.  II.  CHRISTIAN  EMPIRE,  CONSTANTINE  TO  CHARLEMAGNE,  228-285 

Authorities  .  228 


Xll 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


PAGE. 

A.  CHRISTIAN  EMPIRE  UNDER  ROMAN  CONTROL        .         .  229-250 

Imperial  organization 229-231 

Summary  of  leading  events         .....  231-235 

List  of  famous  names 236-240 

Significant  laws  and  customs      .....  242-244 

Illustrative  extracts  from  contemporary  sources          .  244-250 

B.  and  C.   THE  WEST  UNDER  BARBARIAN  CONTROL;   EM- 

PIRE OF  CHARLEMAGNE 250-286 

Summary  of  events 250-255 

List  of  famous  names  and  works  ....  258-264 

Significant  laws  and  customs  .....  267-270 
Extracts  from  contemporary  sources  illustrative  of 

Christian  empire 270-275 

Extracts  illustrative  of  first  century  of  Islam  .  .  276-280 
Extracts  illustrative  of  Islam  in  eighth  and  ninth 

centuries 281-285 

EUROPEAN  HISTORY,  814-1880 286-539 

Introductory 286 

A.  EARLY  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD;    CHARLEMAGNE   TO   THE 

CRUSADES,  814-1095 286-318 

Historical  sources  and  authorities  ....  286 

Organizations  of  period  (feudal)  ....  287-291 

Summary  of  leading  events  .....  293-299 

Lists  of  great  names  and  works  of  period  .  .  .  300-309 
Extracts  and  stories  illustrative  of  European  life  of 

the  period 310-314 

Facts  and  stories  illustrative  of  Islam  .  .  .  315-318 

B.  STUDY  ON  CRUSADING  PERIOD,  1095-1215    .         .         .  318-335 

Historical  authorities  and  sources       .        .         .         .  318 

Summary  of  leading  events        .....  319-324 

List  of  famous  names  and  works  of  twelfth  century  .  325-329 

Extract  and  stories  illustrative  of  period    .         .         .  329-335 

C.  STUDY  ON  LATER  MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD         .        .        .  336-395 

Historical  authorities  and  sources  ....  336 

Organizations  of  period ;  state,  church,  guild,  town  .  336-342 

Summary  of  leading  events  .  .  .  .  .  343-353 
List  of  famous  names,  works,  foundations,  enterprises, 

etc.,  of  the  period 353-370 

Extracts  and  notes  illustrative  of  law,  custom,  and 

organization  of  period      .         .                 .         .  378-395 


TABLE   OF    CONTENTS. 


Xlll 


D.  RENAISSANCE    AND    REFORMATION    ERA,    1492-1648 

(1649  in  England) 396-438 

Introductory 396 

Historical  source  and  authorities        .         .         .  -       .  396-397 
Events  and  movements  of  period        ....  398-410 
List  of  famous  works,  structures,  foundations,  inven- 
tions, discoveries,  etc.,  of  period       .         .         .  410-420 
Contemporary  extracts  illustrative  of  life  and  thought 

of  the  time 421-438 

E.  MODERN  EUROPE 438-538 

I.  THE    "OLD    REGIME,"    1648-1789;    PEACE    OF   WEST- 

PHALIA TO  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  .         .         .  438-474 

A  a.  In  Europe  in  general  ......  438-459 

Historical  sources  and  authorities         .         .         .  438-439 

Summary  of  leading  events          ....  439-451 

Famous  works,  foundations,  enterprises,  etc.,  of 

period 451-458 

Ab.  Special  study  of  "  Old  Regime  "  in  France  .  .  459-474 
Historical  sources  and  authorities  .  .  .  459 

Organization  of  France 460-461 

Extracts  illustrative  of  organization  .  .  .  462-465 

Attempted  reforms 465-466 

Extracts  from  contemporary  sources  illustrative 

of  life  of  period 466-469 

Extracts  illustrative  of  thought  and  feeling  .  470-474 

II.  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  WARS  OF  NAPOLEON         .  474-491 

Historical  sources  and  authorities       ....  474 

Summary  of  leading  events         .....  475-484 
Special  study  of  the   Prussian   leadership  and   the 

Prussian  revolution  ......  486-491 

III.  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 491-538 

Historical  sources  and  authorities       .         .         .         .  491 

Constitutions   of  modern   states;   England,   France, 

Germany 492-500 

General  summary  of  events         .....  501-514 

Special  study  on  development  of  the  German  Empire,  514-525 

Special  study  on  development  of  Italy        .         .         .  525-533 

Special  study  on  socialism          .         .        .         .        .  534-539 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


-  1.  Pyramids  of  Ghizeh  (gee'-za)  .......  8 

2.  Court  of  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Karnak  .        .        .        .        .  9 

3.  Colossus  of  Rameses  II 11 

4.  The  Sun-god  Ra  (ra) 13 

5.  Winged  figure  from  a  gate  at  Nimroud 19 

6.  Lion-gate  at  Mycenae  (ml-see'-nee) 34 

7.  Parthenon .88 

8.  Sculpture  from  Parthenon  frieze    ....  .89 

9.  Mosaic  floor  pattern  from  Olympia 95 

10.  Zeus  of  Phidias       .        .        . 101 

11.  Venus  of  Me'-los 103 

12.  Etruscan  wall  at  Volterra 141 

13.  Roman  wall  of  the  kings 142 

14.  Part  of  Claudian  aqueduct 198 

15.  Colise'-um 199 

16.  Trajan  and  the  lictors 201 

17.  Mosaic  from  baths  of  Caracalla 202 

18.  Pantheon  of  Agrippa 207 

19.  Relief  from  Christian  sarcophagus  of  fourth  century    .         .  241 

20.  Church  of  St.  Sophia 265 

21.  Legend  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours  (toor) ;  tapestry  .        .        .272 

22.  Mosaic  of  tenth  century ;  temporal  and  spiritual  powers        .  275 

23.  Interior  of  mosque  at  Cordova 277 

24.  Feudal  interior;  serfs  receiving  orders  from  their  lord  .         .  292 

25.  St.  Mark's,  Venice 306 

26.  Detail  of  Ducal  palace,  Venice ;  307 

27.  Facade  of  Ducal  palace 308 

28.  Cathedral  of  Amiens,  France 371 

29.  Interior  of  Cologne  cathedral 372 

30.  Portal  of  Notre  Dame  (notreh-dahm')  of  Paris     .         .         .  373 

31.  Monastery  court  at  Pavia      .......  374 

32.  Castle  of  Pierrefonds  (pe'-air-fond)  near  Paris      .         .         .375 


xvi  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

33.  Castle  of  St.  Ulric,  on  the  Rhine 376 

34.  Cloth  hall  at  Ypres  (ee'-p'r)  .         .         .  •    .         .         .         .377 

35.  Renaissance  frieze-pattern  from  Venetian  church  .         .         .  398 

36.  Fountains  hall,  Yorkshire 413 

37.  Court  of  Borghese  (borga'-zeh)  palace,  Rome        .         .         .  415 

38.  The  Escorial .  416 

39.  St.  Peter's 417 

40.  Bird's-eye  view  of  Versailles  (ver-salz')         ....  457 

LIST   OF   MAPS. 

1.  Mediterranean  lands  before  776  B.C 2 

2.  Greece,  with  shores  and  islands  of  the  JEgean       .         .          30-31 

3.  Greece  and  the  Greek  colonies  {Freeman)      .         .         .          44-45 

4.  Attica 66 

5.  Persian,  afterward  Macedonian  empire  ....       74 

6.  Thermopylae 81 

7.  Italy 128 

8.  Mediterranean  lands,  218  B.C 152 

9.  Mediterranean  lands,  146  B.C.        ......     157 

10.  Roman  empire  under  Trajan 190-191 

11.  Europe  in  the  time  of  Theodoric  {Freeman)          .         .  252-253 

12.  Europe  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne  (Freeman)     .         .  256-257 

13.  England  about  600  A.D 299 

14.  Europe  in  the  twelfth  century  (crusading  era)       .         .  316-317 

15.  Western  Europe  in  fourteenth  century  (1360)  (Freeman)  .     347 

16.  Western  Europe  in  time  of  Charles  V.  (Freeman)         .  .     397 

17.  Western  Europe  in  1648,  Treaty  of  Westphalia    .         .  .402 

18.  Empire  of  Napoleon ;  Europe  in  1810  (Freeman)  .         .  .     482 
•19.  Europe  in  1815,  Peace  of  Vienna  (Freeman)          .         .  .     485 

20.  Turkish  dominion  in  Europe  before  and  after  Treaty  of 

Berlin 505 

21.  Europe  at  the  present  day 516-517 

22.  The  World  at  the  present  day       .  .  520-521 

23.  Italy  in  1815          ...  524 

Prof.  P.  V.  N.  Myers,  who  was  so  fortunate  as  to  obtain  the  right 
to  use  Mr.  Freeman's  most  admirable  maps  in  the  preparation  of  his 
"Outlines  of  Mediaeval  and  Modern  History,"  has  Been  so  kind  as  to 
share  with  me  the  benefits  of  that  permission.  M.  8.  B. 


STUDIES  IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 


MAP   OF   LANDS   OP   MEDITERRANEAN   BEFORE   776   B.O 


STUDIES  IN  GENEEAL  HISTOKY, 


THE    CIVILIZED    WORLD   BEFORE    776    B.C. 

A.  Egypt. 

B.  The  Tigro-Euphrates  Valley. 

C.  Phoenicia. 

D.  Judaea. 

"  I  met  a  traveller  from  an  antique  land 
Who  said :  Two  vast  and  trunkless  legs  of  stone 
Stand  in  the  desert.     Near  them,  on  the  sand, 
Half  sunk,  a  shattered  visage  lies.  .  .  . 


And  en  the  pedestal,  these  words  appear: 

My  name  is  Ozymandias,  king  of  kings ; 

Look  on  my  works,  ye  mighty,  and  despair! 

Nothing  beside  remains.     Round  the  decay 

Of  that  colossal  wreck,  boundless  and  bare, 

The  lone  and  level  sands  stretch  faraway."  —  SHELLEY. 


Note  on  Map.  —  The  valleys  of  the  Nile,  of  the  Tigris,  and  Eu- 
phrates were  famous  for  their  heavy  yield  of  wheat-  Their  soil  was 
fertile,  level,  and  watered  and  fertilized  by  the  overflow  or  the  irriga- 
tion from  their  respective  rivers.  The  cities  of  Lilybaeum,  Panormus, 
and  Carthage  were  founded  by  Phoenicians,  who  also  had  in  Spain  two 
famous  colonies ;  namely,  Gades  (Cadiz)  and  Tartessus  (Tarshish), 
both  of  which  were  on  the  coast,  near  Gibraltar. 

Questions  on  Map  and  Note. --How  was  Egypt  naturally  pro- 
tected from  invasion  ?  How  could  she  feed  a  large  population  ?  How 
did  these  two  facts  help  develop  an  early  civilization  ?  What  would 
be  the  chief  natural  occupation  and  support  of  her  people?  Answer 
the  same  questions  in  regard  to  Assyria,  Babylonia,  and  Chaldea. 


4  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

How  were  Phoenicia  and  Judaea  protected?  Which  of  the  civilized 
people  of  that  time  were  sailors  ?  What  great  cities  now  stand  at  or 
near  the  same  foundations  as  those  given  on  the  map?  In  what 
latitude  did  civilization  arise  ?  What  reason  for  this  ?  What  reasons 
can  you  give  why  Southern  Europe  was  civilized  before  Northern  ? 
What  part  of  it  would  first  become  civilized,  and  why?  How  is 
Southern  Europe  protected  from  invasion  ? 


A.    STUDY  OF  EGYPT. 

Chief  contemporary  sources  of  its  history:  the  Pyramids, 
the  temples  of  Karnak,  and  other  remains  near  or  at  the 
site  of  Thebes ;  the  contents  and  inscriptions  of  the  tombs 
near  Memphis,  Thebes,  and  elsewhere. 

Other  original  sources :  Old  Testament,  Herodotus, 
Manetho,  Records  of  the  Past  (Eng.  trans,  of  inscriptions). 

Chief  modern  authorities  accessible  in  English :  Wilkin- 
son, Bunsen,  Duncker,  Brugsch,  Rawlinson,  Lenormarit, 
Chevallier,  Sayce,  Birch,  Mariette. 

1.  Classes  of  People  in  Egypt. 

King,  who  divides  the  land,  makes  the  laws,  decides  on 
war  or  peace,  appoints  and  removes  judges,  generals,  and 
all  officers  in  general;  he  is  believed  to  be  son  of  the 
chief  deity  while  living,  and  is  himself  worshipped  as  a 
deity  when  dead ;  he  leads  the  army  in  war,  is  one  of  the 
chief  priests  of  the  land,  directs  the  making  and  building 
of  roads,  canals,  cities,  temples,  palaces. 

'riests,  who  hold  government  offices,  have  entire  charge 
of  religion  and  education,  hold  one-third  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,  pay  no  taxes.  The  chief  high  priest  is  second  to 

the  king.   -  • — 

—•Warriors  or  Nobles,  who  hold  government   offices,  hold 
about  a  third  of  the  land,  pay  no  taxes,  aid  the  king  in  war. 


STUDY   ON   EGYPT.  5 

Country  Laborers,  who  work  the  land  of  the  priests  and 

)      nobles,  are  sold  with  i  it,  pay  heavy  taxes,  and  are  forced 

to    work    on    canals,    roads,    temples    and   palaces,    when      / 
)      ordered  by  the  king.  1 

Tradesmen  and  Artisans  of  the  towns. 


2.   Leading  Periods  of  Egyptian  History,  with  Chief 
Events,   Works,  and  Names  of  Each  Period. 


Old    and     Middle     Empires     of     Egypt.  — •  Cheops 


(Khufu),    king   of    Memphis,    builds   the    Great        TO  ' 
Pyramid  of  Ghizeh,  near  Memphis,  for  his  tomb  '- 
(see  picture,  p.  8).    Other  kings  build  the  second  and  third 
pyramids,   the    sphinx,2   and    the    temple    of    the    sphinx. 
From  this  time  dates  the  "  Book  of  the  Dead,"  a  book  of 
directions  for  the  soul  after  death,  written  by  the  priests; 
and  a  book  on   morals  and  manners,  by   the   Memphite 
prince,  Ptah-hotep. 

In  the  latter  part  of  this  time  the  famous  Lake  Mo3ris 
is  constructed,  —  an  enormous  artificial  reservoir  for  re- 
taining and  evenly  distributing  through  the  country,  by 
means  of  irrigating  canals,  the  overflow  of  the  Nile.  With 
this  is  connected  the  necessary  canal,  and  a  protecting 
dyke  twenty-seven  miles  long ;  the  necessary  sluices  and 
flood-gates,  and  a  Nilometer  for  measuring  the  height  of 
the  river.  The  so-called  "  Labyrinth,"  in  some  way  con- 
nected with  religion,  is  also  built.  All  these  works  are 
begun  and  carried  through  by  kings  ruling  at  Thebes. 

1  The  (?)  placed  after  a  date  or  a  statement  implies  that  the  date  or 
the  statement  is  disputed  or  approximate. 

2  The  sphinx  is  a  colossal  crouching  figure,  half  beast,  half  man,  near 
the  Great  Pyramid.     It  is  cut  from  the  solid  rock,  and  nearly  200  ft.  in 
length.     The  head  alone  measures   about  30  ft.  from  the  top  of  the  fore- 
head to  the  bottom  of  the  chin.     It  is  a  symbol  of  the  sun-god. 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

The  Hyksos,  or  shepherd  kings,  foreigners  from 
Syria  or  Arabia,  hold  the  country.  Under  them  the 
Jews  (Jacob  and  his  sons)  probably  enter  Egypt. 

New    Empire,    centering    at    Thebes.  —  The    The- 

ban  kings  expel  the  shepherds,  and  rule  the  whole 
of  Egypt.  Under  their  eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
dynasties,  conquests  are  made  in  Phoenicia,  Palestine, 
Mesopotamia,  Nubia.  The  horse  and  chariot  are  brought 
into  Egypt  from  Asia.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  period, 
the  Exodus  of  the  Jews  takes  place.  Thothmes  III. 
(eighteenth  dynasty)  builds  magnificent  temples  at  Mem- 
phis, Thebes,  and  at  Karnak  and  Luxor,  near  Thebes,  and 
is  a  famous  conqueror.  About  1400,  the  colossi  of  Mem- 
non  are  made,  sitting  monolithic  statues  of  the  reigning 
king,  more  than  sixty  feet  high.  The  father  of  Rameses 
II.  causes  old  gold  mines  to  be  reopened  and  worked,  and 
builds  the  G-reat  Hall  of  the  temple  at  Karnak.  This 
"  Hall  of  Columns  "  is  composed  of  134  stone  pillars,  and 
covers  a  larger  area  than  Cologne  Cathedral.  The  col- 
umns at  Karnak,  many  of  them,  are  62  ft.  high  and  33  ft. 
around ;  many  others  are  45  ft.  high  and  27  or  28  ft.  in  cir- 
cumference. One  of  these  columns  fell  against  another, 
but  neither  injured  nor  shook  it ;  both  yet  remain,  one 
bearing  the  other.  The  ceiling  of  the  temple  was  com- 
posed of  single  stones,  extending  from  column  to  column. 
Rameses  II.,  who  was  known  as  Sesostris  to  the  Greeks, 
opens  a  canal  from  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea,  maintains  a 
fleet,  builds  cities  and  temples,  erects  obelisks  and  statues 
to  himself  and  the  gods,  establishes  a  royal  library  under 
the  care  of  the  priests,  in  which  are  the  works  of  his- 
torians, moralists,  philosophers,  poets,  and  novelists. 

Decline  of  Egyptian  power ;  final  conquest  of 
Egypt  by  the  Persians,  in  527. 


STUDY    ON  EGYPT.  7 

3.  List  of  Objects  found  within  or  represented  upon 
Egyptian  Tombs. 

a.  From  all  Periods.  —  Mummies,  or  the  bodies  of  the 
dead  preserved  in  natron,  bitumen,  spices,  oils,  gums  and 
aromatics,  and  wrapped  about  with  linen  bandages  of  all 
degrees  of  fineness,  the  whole  enclosed  in  a  wooden  coffin, 
shaped  like  the  body,  painted  and  ornamented  according 
to  the  means  of  its  owner ;  sarcophagi,  or  stone  cases  of 
granite,  alabaster,  or  other  fine  stone,  variously  engraved 
and  carved,  each  containing  within  it  mummy  and  mummy- 
case  ;  papyri,  or  manuscripts  written  on  paper  made  from 
the  papyrus  reed,  which  grew  in  ancient  Egypt ;  wooden 
plows  and  hoes ;  boats  with  oars,  and  with  plain  or  em- 
broidered sails  ;  oxen,  asses,  sheep,  goats,  pigs,  poultry ; 
trained  grape-vines ;  statuettes  and  amulets  of  alabaster, 
of  glazed  and  unglazed  pottery,  and  opaque  glass ;  jewelry 
of  gold,  silver,  bronze,  and  precious  stones. 

5.  Prom  Theban  Period.  —  War-horses  and  chariots ;  all 
sorts  of  weapons,  spears,  javelins,  arrows,  clubs,  frequently 
of  bronze ;  saws,  mallets,  chisels,  frequently  of  bronze ; 
looms,  embroidered  linen  robes ;  many  sorts  of  musical 
instruments,  leather  sandals,  chairs,  stools,  flower-stands, 
couches,  perfumery  bottles. 

STUDY  ON    I,  2,  AND  3. 

Who  held  the  central  political  and  military  power  in  ancient 
Egypt?  Prove  it  from  1  and  2.  What  belief  confirmed  this  power? 
What  classes  were  aristocrats?  Of  what  use  was  each  class?  What 
class  supported  the  rest?  What  class  was  oppressed,  and  how? 
AVhat  name  do  you  give  to  such  a  form  of  government?  Of  society? 
What  classes  would  support  this  form  of  government  and  society? 
What  seem  to  have  been  the  chief  desires  of  the  Memphite  kings  ?  Of 
the  Theban  ?  On  whom  did  Egypt  depend  for  her  success  in  war  and 
commerce,  and  her  glory  in  civilization  ?  What  does  the  absence  of 


8 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


monuments  and  records  under  the  Hyksos  kings  seem  to  indicate 
about  them  ?  Make  a  list  of  the  arts  known  among  the  Egyptians  ; 
of  the  occupations;  of  the  different  sorts  of  knowledge.  Of  these, 


THE  PYRAMIDS  OP  GHIZEH. 


which  specially  belonged  to  the  Theban  period  ?  What  tell  us  about 
these  things  ?  What  position  gave  a  man  the  chance  for  greatness, 
and  how  could  he  achieve  it? 


STUDY   ON   EGYPT. 


4.   Pictures  and  Extracts  Illustrative  of  Egyptian 
Civilization. 

Note  on  Pyramids .  —  Of  the  sixty  or  seventy  pyramids  in  Egypt, 
the  most  famous  is  the  Pyramid-group  of  GhizeJi ;  and  of  this  group, 
the  Great  Pyramid  is  the  most  wonderful.  Its  original  height,  ap- 
proaching 500  ft.,  was  greater  than  that  of  any  other  structure,  and  it 
covers  an  area  of  more  than  thirteen  acres.  Many  of  the  basement 
stones  are  thirty  feet  long,  and  nearly  five  feet  high,  and,  even  to  the 
top  of  the  pyramid,  the  mass  of  single  stones  is  great.  These  stones 


COURT  OP  TEMPLE  OF  THE  SUN  AT  KARNAK,  BUILT  BY  RAMESES  III. 

are  united  by  a  cement  harder  than  themselves,  and  by  joints  as  thin  as 
a  sheet  of  paper.  Within  the  pyramid  are  three  sepulchral  chambers, 
to  which  access  is  had  by  long  galleries.  The  chief  of  these  is  the 
King's  Chamber,  where  the  sarcophagus  of  the  builder  of  the  pyramid 
was  found.  This  room  is  made  wholly  of  finely  polished  granite, 
whose  great  blocks  were  brought  down  the  Nile  from  quarries  more 
than  500  miles  away.  In  order  to  lighten  the  weight  of  masonry  upon 
its  roof,  five  low  chambers  are  constructed  above  it ;  to  ventilate  it, 


10  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

two  small  passages  lead  from  it  to  the  outside  air,  through  the  solid 
masses  of  the  pyramid.  The  cutting  and  polishing  of  its  stones  is 
equal  to  any  work  that  can  be  produced  to-day,  with  the  best  perfected 
tools.  Much  of  its  stone  was  brought  from  the  Arabian  quarries,  and 
the  causeway  on  which  it  was  brought  from  the  Nile  to  the  pyramids 
is  still  to  be  traced  for  a  good  distance. 

EXTRACTS. 

From  the  "  Book  of  the  Dead." 

When  the  deceased  was  brought  before  Osiris,  the  judge  of 
the  dead,  he  was  questioned  as  to  his  whole  past  life.  In  reply 
he  should  be  able  to  answer :  "I  have  not  blasphemed  ;  I  have 
not  deceived ;  I  have  not  stolen  ;  I  have  not  slain  any  one 
treacherously  ;  I  have  not  been  cruel  to  any  one  ;  I  have  not 
caused  disturbance ;  I  have  not  been  idle ;  I  have  not  been 
drunken ;  I  have  not  issued  unjust  orders ;  I  have  not  been 
indiscreetly  curious  ;  I  have  not  multiplied  words  in  speaking  ; 
I  have  struck  no  one  ;  I  have  caused  fear  to  no  one ;  I  have 
not  eaten  my  heart  through  envy  ;  I  have  not  reviled  the  face 
of  the  king,  nor  the  face  of  my  father.  ...  I  have  not  ill-used 
my  slaves  ;  I  have  not  killed  sacred  beasts  ;  I  have  not  defiled 
the  river.  ...  I  have  made  it  my  delight  to  do  what  men  com- 
mand, and  the  gods  approve.  I  have  offered  to  the  deities  all 
the  sacrifices  that  were  their  due  ;  I  have  given  bread  to  the 
hungry  and  drink  to  him  that  was  athirst ;  I  have  clothed  the 
naked  with  garments.  .  .  ."  Could  the  deceased  thus  justify 
himself,  he  was  allowed  to  pass  on  his  way  toward  Elysium. 

From  a  Prayer  to  the  Chief  God.   (Memphite  period.) 

"Hail  to  thee,  Lord  of  truth!  ...  at  whose  command  the 
gods  were  made ;  .  .  .  the  maker  of  men  ;  that  supportest  their 
works,  that  givest  them  life  ;  .  .  .  that  listenest  to  the  poor  who 
is  in  distress  ;  that  art  gentle  of  heart  when  a  man  crieth  unto 
thee  ;  thou  who  deliverest  the  fearful  man  from  the  violent ; 
who  judgest  the  poor  and  oppressed  ;  Lord  of  wisdom  ...  at 
whose  pleasure  the  Nile  overflows  her  banks ;  Lord  of  mercy, 
most  loving,  at  whose  coming  men  live ;  .  .  .  cause  of  pleasure 


STUDY  ON  EGYPT. 


11 


THE  COLOSSUS  OP  RAMESES  II. 

colossus  Is  nearly  seventy  feet  In  height:  it  is  one  of  four,  cut  from  the  eolld  rock, 
that  guard  the  entrance  to  lue  rocli-fcewn  teazle  of  lusmnboul.  in  Nubia. 


12  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

and   light,  at  whose   goodness   the  gods  rejoice,   their  hearts 
reviving  when  they  see  Thee." 

From  the  Precepts  of  Prince  Ptah-hotep. 

"  The  obedience  of  a  docile  sou  is  a  blessing.  .  .  .  The  son 
who  accepts  the  words  of  his  father  will  grow  old  on  account  of 
it.  For  obedience  is  of  God,  disobedience  is  hateful  to  God. 
.  .  .  Fulfil  the  word  of  thy  master.  .  .  .  The  obedient  will  be 
happy  through  his  obedience  ;  he  will  attain  old  age,  he  will 
acquire  favor.  I  have  nyself  in  this  way  become  one  of  the 
ancients  of  the  earth ;  I  have  passed  one  hundred  and  ten 
years  of  life  by  the  gift  of  the  King  .  .  .  fulfilling  my  duty  to 
the  King  in  the  place  of  his  favor." 

From  a  Hymn  to  the  Nile,  of  the  Time  of  Rameses  II. 
Hail  to  thee,  O  Nile  ! 
Thou  showest  thyself  in  this  land, 
Coming  in  peace,  giving  life  to  Egypt: 


Overflowing  the  gardens  created  by  Ra  ; ! 
Giving  life  to  all  animals  ; 
Watering  the  land  without  ceasing  : 

Lover  of  food,  bestower  of  corn, 
Giving  light  to  every  home  .  .  .   ! 

Thou  shinest  in  the  city  of  the  King  ; 

Then  the  house-holders  are  satiated  with  good  things 

The  poor  man  laughs  at  the  lotus.0 

All  things  are  perfectly  ordered, — 

Every  kind  of  herb  for  thy  children. 

If  food  should  fail, 

All  enjoyment  is  cast  on  the  ground, 

The  land  falls  in  weariness. 


1  Ra,  the  chief  sun-god. 

2  Which  he  ate  when  lie  could  get  nothing  else. 


STUDY    ON   EGYPT. 


13 


Shine  forth,  shine  forth,  O  Nile  !  shine  forth ! 
Giving  life  to  men  by  his  oxen  : 
Giving  life  to  his  oxen  by  the  pastures  ! 
Shine  forth  in  glory,  0  Nile. 

From  a  Prayer  to  the  Sun.   (Theban  period.) 

"  Thou  Disk  of  the  sun,  thou  living  god,  there  is  none  other 
beside  thee  !  thou  givest  health  to  the  eyes.  .  .  .  Creator  of  all 
beings.    Thou  goest  up  in  the  eastern 
horizon   of    the  heaven,   to  dispense 
life  to  all  which  thou  hast  created,  — 
man  .  .  .  beasts,  birds,  and  creeping 
things  of  the  earth  .  .  .  and  they  go 
to  sleep  when  thou  settest." 

I lURDll  ^Ji 

From  a  Prayer  of  Eameses,  when  hard 

pressed  in  Battle. 

"I  call  on  thee,  ray  father  Ammon1 ; 
I  am  amid  multitudes  unknown,  na- 
tions gathered  against  me :  I  am 
alone,  no  other  with  me  ;  my  foot  and 
horse  have  left  me.  I  called  aloud  to 
them,  none  of  them  heard.  I  find 
Ammon  worth  more  than  millions  of 
soldiers,  thousands  of  cavalry,  .  .  . 
were  they  gathered  all  in  one.  No 
works  of  many  men  avail,  Ammon 

against  them.  . .  .  My  cry  rang  unto  Hermonthis  ;  Ra  heard  when 
I  called,  he  put  his  hand  to  me  ;  I  was  glad  ;  he  called  to  me  : 
'  Rameses,  I  am  with  thee,  I  thy  father  Ra ;  my  hand  is  with 
thee.  I  am  worth  to  thee  myriads  joined  in  one  ;  I  am  sovran 
lord  of  victory,  loving  valor ;  if  I  find  courage,  my  heart  over- 
flows with  joy;  all  my  doing  is  fulfilled.'"  u  Then,",  adds 
Rameses,  "  not  one  of  them  joined  his  hand  to  fight,  their  heart 


1   God  of  heaven,  afterward  united  with  Ka,  the  sun-god. 


14  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

shrank  within  them ;  .  .  .  I  slew  them  ;   .  .  .  none  escaped  me ; 
.  .  .  Ammon  brings  very  low  them  that  know  not  God." 

From  an  Inscription  concerning  Rameses. 

"  Prince,  Sovran  Lord  .  .  .  who  can  soothe  thee  in  the  day  of 
thy  wrath  ?  .  .  .  Dread  of  his  might  is  in'  every  heart,  he  protects 
his  army,  all  nations  come  to  the  great  name,  falling  down  and 
adoring  his  noble  countenance." 

The  following  is  from  an  inscription  regarding  another  The- 
ban  king :  — 

"  Then  came  the  prince  Pefaabast,  with  tributes  to  the 
reigning  Pharaoh  of  gold,  silver,  and  all  precious  stones,  with 
steeds  the  choicest  of  his  stud.  He  threw  himself  prostrate 
before  the  king  and  said,  '  Hail  to  thee,  Horus,  sacred  majesty  ! 
.  .  .  Hades  has  seized  me.  I  am  immersed  in  darkness  !  Give 
me  light,  I  pray  thee.  I  have  not  found  a  friend  in  the  evil 
time  standing  by  me  in  the  day  of  battle,  save  thee  only,  O  King. 
Do  thou  lift  the  darkness  from  me.  I  am  thy  slave,  together 
with  all  my  subjects,  attached  to  thy  royal  apartments :  thou 
glorious  image  of  the  sun,  ruling  over  the  indestructible  con- 
stellations !  While  he  exists  thou  existest,  as  he  is  indestructi- 
ble thou  art  indestructible,  0  King  of  all  Egypt,  living  for 
evermore.'  " 

And  again  :  "  Corn  is  brought  as  an  offering  to  -thee  ;  it  is  in 
its  season  :  do  not  destroy  the  tree  together  with  its  frnit.  All 
hail  to  thee  !  Thy  terror  is  in  my  body  ;  thy  fright  is  in  my 
teeth!  I  sit  not  in  the  house  of  feasting;  the  harp  is  not 
brought  to  me  ;  lo,  I  eat  the  bread  of  hunger  and  drink  in 
thirst.  For  since  the  day  thou  heardest  my  name  terror  is  in 
my  bones,  my  head  is  untrimmed,  my  garments  are  squalid." 

From  a  Writer  of  the  Time  of  Rameses  II. 

"  Have  you  ever  represented  to  yourself  the  state  of  the  rustic 
who  tills  the  ground?  Before  he  has  put  the  sickle  to  the  crop, 
the  locusts  have  blasted  a  part  of  it ;  then  come  the  rats  and 
the  birds.  .  .  .  Anon,  the  tax-gatherer  arrives,  his  agents  are 


STUDY   ON    EGYPT.  15 

armed  with  clubs  ;  he  has  negroes  with  him  who  carry  whips 
of  palm  branches.  They  all  cry  k  Give  us  your  grain  ! '  and  he 
has  no  easy  way  of  avoiding  their  extortionate  demands.  Next, 
the  wretch  is  caught,  bound  and  sent  off  to  work  without  wages 
at  the  canals  ;  his  wife  is  taken  and  chained ;  his  children  are 
stripped  and  plundered." 

From  a  Writer  of  the  Time  of  Thothmes  III.  —  accompanying 

the  picture  of  a  taskmaster  armed  with  a  stick,  who  thus 

addresses  the  laborers  :  — 

"  The  stick  is  in  my  hand.     Be  not  idle." 

"  Here  are  to  be  seen  the  prisoners,  which  have  been  carried 
away  as  living  captives  in  very  great  numbers  ;  they  work  at 
the  building  with  active  fingers  ;  their  overseers  are  in  sight ; 
these  insist  with  vehemence  (on  the  others)  obeying  the 
orders  of  the  great  skilled  lord  (head-architect)  who  prescribes 
to  them  the  works ;  .  .  .  they  are  rewarded  with  wine  and  all 
kinds  of  good  dishes  ;  they  perform  their  service  with  a  mind 
full  of  love  for  the  king ;  they  build  for  Thothmes  ...  a  Holy 
of  Holies  for  the  gods.  May  it  be  rewarded  to  him  through  a 
range  of  years." 

STUDY  ON  4. 

What  qualities  did  the  Egyptians  evidently  admire  in  architecture 
and  sculpture?  (See  text  of  2,  as  well  as  pictures.)  Make  a  list  of  all 
the  arts  and  sciences  that  are  indicated  by  the  pictures.  (See  notes 
also.)  What  did  the  Egyptians  believe  in  regard  to  the  immortality 
of  the  soul?  Of  the  body?  What  did  they  believe  of  the  nature  of 
deity?  Of  the  number  of  deities?  Of  their  relative  rank?  Of  the 
moral  duties  of  man?  What  moral  duties  stood  highest  in  their  re^ 
gard?  Any  relation  between  this  and  their  form  of  government?  In 
their  religious  life  how  was  human  equality  regarded  ? 

What  reasons  had  they  for  thinking  the  sun  divine  ?  The  Nile  ? 
How  could  their  gods  be  reached  and  pleased?  Judging  from  the 
sphinx  and  the  picture  of  the  sun-god  (p.  13),  what  peculiarity  was 
there  in  the  Egyptian  representation  of  deity  ?  What  proof  have  we 
that  the  Egyptians  believed  that  the  gods  could  and  would  interfere 
with  and  direct  human  affairs? 


16  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

What  was  true  of  liberty  among  the  Egyptians?  Of  equality? 
Prove  it  from  1  and  4.  What  was  the  Egyptian  ideal  of  manhood? 
What  right  had  the  Egyptians  to  be  called  civilized  ?  What  superior 
right  have  we  ?  What  Egyptians  were  uncivilized  ? 


B.    STUDY   ON   THE   TIGKO-EUPHKATES   VALLEY. 

Chief  contemporary  and  original  sources  of  history:  The 
ruins  of  the  palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon ;  cuneiform 
inscriptions  on  brick  cylinders  and  tablets1;  the  Hebrew 
scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament ;  and  the  fragments  of 
Berosus,  Records  of  the  Past  (see  page  4). 

Chief  modern  authorities  accessible  in  English :  Rawlin- 
son,  Smith,  Layard,  Birch,  Leiiormant,  Sayce,  Duncker. 

PERIODS  OF  HISTORY  (ALL  DATES  B.C.). 
Dynasties  ruling   at   or  near   Babylon  in  chief  power,  4000  (?)  - 

1250  (?). 
Assyrian    dynasties   ruling   at   or   near   Nineveh  in   chief  power, 

1250  (?)- 025  (?). 

Nineveh  destroyed  by  Babylonians  and  Medes,  625  (?). 
Babylon  chief  power  of  the  valley,  625  (?)  -  538. 
Babylon  conquered  by  the  Persians,  538. 

1.  Leading  Events,  Works,  and  Names  in  the  History  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

Observations  made  at  or  near  Babylon  on  stars, 
comets,  planets,   on    the    sun   and   moon ;    stars 
named,  length  and  divisions  of  the  year  deter- 
mined, zodiac  described   and  divided ;    calendar  formed, 

1  The  brick  cylinders  and  tablets  were  the  Assyrian  books ;  the  law, 
record,  or  story,  to  be  preserved,  was  written  in  cuneiform  (wedge-shaped) 
characters,  on  a  clay  surface,  from  which,  when  hard,  a  number  of  dupli- 
cate impressions  might  be  made.  Thousands  of  these  clay  records  have 
been  found,  and  are  being  deciphered. 


STUDY   ON   THE  TIGROEUPHRATES  VALLEY.  17 

eclipses  observed  and  piedicted.  Canals  built,  and  an 
embankment  for  the  Tigris  made ;  a  library  founded,  in 
which  are  many  books  (of  clay)  on  astronomy  and  as- 
trology. About  1900,  Nineveh  founded  by  settlers  from 
Babylonia. 

Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  Assyrian  king,  conquers 
territory  in  every  direction,  and  rules  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Caspian ;  Sardanapalus 
(Assur-natzir-pal),  a  great  warrior,  conquers  most  of  Phoe- 
nicia ;  builds  a  great  palace  near  Nineveh.  Shalmaneser 
II.,  a  great  warrior,  builds  himself  a  splendid  palace  near 
Nineveh.  Tiglath-Pileser  II.  temporarily  conquers  Phoe- 
nicia, Palestine,  Syria.  Sargon  conquers  Samaria  and 
Judaea,  builds  a  new  city  with  palaces  and  temples.  Sen- 
nacherib, a  great  warrior,  maintains  a  fleet,  founds  Tarsus, 
constructs  canals  and  aqueducts,  builds  himself  a  grand 
palace  at  Nineveh.  Esarhaddon,  a  great  warrior,  holds 
Phoenicia,  Syria,  and  Judah  in  tribute  ;  conquers  Egypt ; 
begins  the  walls  of  Babylon.  Sardanapalus  II.  (Asshur- 
bani-pal)  subdues  Egypt  and  various  neighboring  territo- 
ries ;  builds  at  Nineveh  the  most  magnificent  of  Assyrian 
palaces,  and  establishes  a  royal  library,  in  which  are  found 
treatises  on  grammar,  dictionaries  of  native  languages, 
laws,  collections  of  hymns,  lists  of  plants,  minerals,  and 
animals ;  many  books  on  arithmetic ;  catalogues  of  obser- 
vations on  the  stars,  planets,  sun,  and  moon. 

Nineveh  destroyed  by  Babylonians  and  Medes.  [  eas  (?)  | 
Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  conquers  Jerusalem, 
Egypt,  Syria,  and  Phoenicia;  builds  a  great  pal- 
ace, and  the  famous  "  hanging  gardens  "  at  Baby- 
lon ;  surrounds  his  city  by  walls,  reckoned  as  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  world  for  their  thickness,  strength, 
and  height.  He  completes  the  quays  of  the  Euphrates, 
re-opens  a  royal  canal,  constructs  a  great  lake  as  an  arti- 


18  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

ficial  reservoir  for  watering  the  plain,  and  establishes  a 
harbor  city  for  Babylon  at  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates. 


2.   Extracts  Illustrative  of  Assyria- Babylonian  History, 
taken  from  the  Inscriptions  of  Various  Monarchs. 

From  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  about  1120. 

"  Tiglath-Pileser,  the  powerful  King  ;  supreme  King  of  vari- 
ous tongues  ;  King  of  all  Kings  ;  Lord  of  Lords  ;  the  Supreme  ; 
Monarch  of  Monarchs  ;  the  illustrious  Chief,  who  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Sun  God,  being  armed  with  the  sceptre  and  girt 
with  the  girdle  of  power  over  mankind,  rules  over  all  the  people 
of  Bel.1  .  .  .  With  a  host  of  kings  I  have  fought  .  .  .  and  have 
imposed  on  them  the  bond  of  servitude.  There  is  not  to  me  a 
second  in  war  nor  an  equal  in  battle.  I  have  added  territory  to 
Assyria  and  peoples  to  her  people.  ...  I  conquered  the  whole 
country  of  Comukha.  I  plundered  their  movables,  their  wealth, 
and  their  valuables.  Their  cities  I  burnt  with  fire,  I  destroyed 
them  and  ruined  them.  ...  I  took  the  entire  country  of  Sugi. 
Twenty-five  of  their  gods,  their  movables,  their  wealth,  and 
their  valuables  I  carried  off.  All  of  their  cities  I  burnt  with 
fire,  I  destroyed  and  overthrew.  The  men  of  their  armies  sub- 
mitted to  my  yoke.  I  had  mercy  on  them.  I  imposed  on  them 
tribute  and  offerings.  Among  the  subjects  of  Asshur,2  my 
Lord,  I  reckoned  them.  .  .  ." 

From  Esar-haddon. 

"  In  a  fortunate  month,  and  a  lucky  day,  I  began  to  build 
great  palaces  for  the  residence  of  my  Majesty  upon  that  mound. 
Bulls  and  lions,  carved  in  stone,  which,  with  their  majestic 
mien,  deter  wicked  enemies  from  approaching,  right  and  left 
I  placed  them  at  the  gates. 


1  Bel,  or  Baal,  one  of  the  chief  Assyrian  gods. 

2  Asshur,  or  Assur,  one  of  the  oldest  Assyrian  gods. 


STUDY   ON    THE    TIGRO-EUPHKATES    VALLEY.  19 

"  "Winged  lionesses  of  bronze  I  placed  within.  Of  fine 
cedar  wood  and  ebony  I  made  the  ceilings  of  the  apartments. 
The  whole  of  that  palace  I  embellished  with  veneered  slabs  of 
ivory  and  alabaster,  and  I  embroidered  its  tapestries.  With 
flat  roofs,  like  a  floor  of  lead,  I  covered  the  whole  building, 
and  with  plates  of  pure  silver  and  bright  bronze  I  erected  it 
within." 


WINGED  FIGURE  PROM  A  GATE  AT  NIMROUD,  NEAR  NINEVEH. 

From,  Assur-natzir-pal.    (Sardanapalus.) 

' '  To  Ninip  [an  Ass3rrian  god] ,  most  powerful  hero,  war- 
rior, .  .  .  powerful  lord,  whose  onset  in  battle  has  not  been 
opposed,  .  .  .  he  who  rolls  along  the  mass  of  heaven  and  earth, 
opener  of  canals,  ...  the  god  who  in  his  divinity  nourishes 
heaven  and  earth,  .  .  .  bestowerof  sceptres,  ...  a  king  in  but- 


20  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

tie,  might}-,  .  .  .  smiting  the  land  of  the  enemy,  .  .  .  the  deity 
who  changes  not  his  purposes,  the  light  of  heaven  and  earth, 
a  bold  leader  on  the  waters,  destroyer  of  them  that  hate  [him], 
a  spoiler  [and]  Lord  of  the  disobedient,  dividing  enemies,  whose 
name  in  the  speech  of  the  gods  no  god  has  ever  disregarded,  — 
...  to  him,  in  the  reverence  of  my  heart  for  his  mighty  Lord- 
ship, I  founded  a  temple,  where  I  caused  to  be  made  an  image 
of  Ninip  himself  in  mountain-stone  and  brilliant  gold." 

From  an  Inscription  of  Sargon,  upon  a  Palace. 

"I  built  in  the  city  palaces  covered  with  skins,  with  wood- 
work of  sandal,  tamarisk,  cedar,  and  cypress,  palaces  of  incom- 
parable magnificence  for  the  seat  of  my  royalty.  .  .  .  There  I 
wrote  up  the  glory  of  the  gods.  ...  I  made  a  spiral  staircase 
like  that  of  the  great  temple  in  Syria.  .  .  .  Between  the  doors, 
I  placed  eight  double  lions  of  massive  bronze.  ...  I  placed 
over  them  architraves  of  gypsum  stone  of  great  dimensions.  .  .  . 
My  palaces  contain  gold,  silver,  vessels  of  these  two  metals, 
precious  stones,  iron,  bronze,  blue  and  purple  stuffs,  .  .  .  amber, 
sealskins,  pearls,  sandal  and  ebony  wood,  horses  from  Egypt, 
oxen,  mules,  camels.  These  are  the  tributes  I  asked  for  the 
gods." 

From  Sennacherib. 

"  In  the  first  campaign  I  conquered  .  .  .  the  King  of  Chaldea. 
...  I  opened  his  treasure  house,  I  seized  gold,  silver,  his  fur- 
niture, his  robes,  his  wife,  his  men,  his  courtiers,  his  male  and 
female  slaves,  his  domestics  of  the  palace,  his  soldiers ;  I 
brought  them  out  and  sold  them  for  slaves.  .  .  .  But  Hezekiah, 
king  of  Judah,  did  not  submit.  There  wei'e  forty-six  walled 
towns,  and  an  infinite  numbed  of  villages  that  I  fought  against, 
humbling  their  pride,  and  braving  their  anger.  By  means  of 
fire,  massacre,  battles,  and  siege-operations,  I  took  them  ;  I 
occupied  them;  I  brought  out  200,150  persons,  great  and 
small,  men  and  women,  horses,  asses,  mules,  camels,  oxen,  and 


STUDY    ON   THE   T I GIIO-EUPHRATES    VALLEY.  21 

sheep  without  number,  and  carried  them  off  as  booty.  As  for 
himself  I  shut  him  up  in  Jerusalem,  the  city  of  his  power,  like 
a  bird  in  its  cage.  .  .  .  Then  the  fear  of  my  majesty  terrified 
Hezekiah ;  ...  He  sent  messengers  to  me  ...  with  thirty 
talents  of  gold  and  eight  hundred  talents  of  silver,  metals, 
rubies,  pearls,  great  carbuncles,  seats  covered  with  skins, 
thrones  ornamented  with  leather,  amber,  sealskins,  sandal 
wood,  and  ebony,  the  contents  of  his  treasury,  as  well  as  his 
daughters,  the  women  of  his  palace,  his  male  and  female 
slaves.  .  .  .  By  my  care  I  caused  the  uprising  of  springs  in 
more  than  forty  places  in  the  plain  ;  I  divided  them  into  irri- 
gating canals  for  the  people  of  Nineveh,  and  gave  them  to  be 
their  own  property.  To  obtain  water  to  turn  the  flour-mills, 
I  brought  it  in  pipes  ...  to  Nineveh,  and  skilfully  constructed 
water-wheels.  I  brought  down  the  perennial  waters  of  the 
river  Kutzuru  from  the  distance  of  three  miles  and  a  half,  into 
those  reservoirs,  and  covered  them  well. 

"  That  I  might  conquer  my  powerful  enemies,  I  prayed  to 
the  gods  my  pi'otectors,  to  Assur,  the  Moon,  the  Sun,  Bel, 
Nebo,  Nergal,  Ishtar  of  Nineveh  and  Ishtar  of  Arbela.  They 
heard  my  earnest  prayers,  and  came  to  my  assistance.  From 
my  heart  I  vowed  a  thank-offering  for  it." 

Of  Assur-bani-pal. 

"  Those  men  who  uttered  the  curses  of  their  mouth,  against 
Assur  my  god,  and  against  me,  the  prince  his  worshipper,  had 
devised  evil.;  —  their  tongues  I  pulled  out,  their  overthrow  I 
accomplished.  The  rest  of  the  people  I  threw  alive  among  the 
stone  lions  and  bulls.  Their  cut-off  limbs  I  caused  to  be  eaten 
by  dogs,  bears,  .  .  .  birds  of  heaven,  and  fishes  of  the  deep. 
By  these  things,  ...  I  satisfied  the  hearts  of  the  great  gods  my 
lords." 

From  Nebuchadnezzar's  Description  of  a   Temple  built  by  him 

at  Babylon. 

' '  I  employed  for  the  woodwork  of  the  chamber  of  oracles  the 
largest  trees  I  had  caused  to  be  transported  from  the  summit  of 


22  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Lebanon.  I  covered  with  pure  gold  the  enormous  beams  of 
cypress,  employed  for  the  woodwork  of  the  chamber  of  oracles  ; 
the  lower  portion  of  the  woodwork  I  incrusted  with  gold,  silver, 
other  metals,  and  gems.  I  had  the  vault  of  the  mystic  sanctu- 
ary incrusted  with  glass  and  gems,  so  as  to  represent  the  firma- 
ment with  the  stars.  The  wonder  of  Babylon,  I  rebuilt  and 
restored  it :  it  is  this  temple  of  the  base  of  heaven  and  earth 
whose  summit  I  raised  of  bricks,  and  covered  it  externally  with 
a  cornice  of  copper." 

From,  a  Prayer  at  the  Death  of  a  Righteous  Man. 

"  To  the  Sun,  greatest  of  the  gods,  may  he  ascend !  and  ma}' 
the  Sun,  greatest  of  the  gods,  receive  his  soul  into  his  holy 
hands ! " 

From  an  Assyrian  Ode. 

"  O  Fire,  great  Lord,  who  art  the  most  exalted  in  the  world, 
0  Fire,  with  thy  bright  flame  in  the  dark  house  thou  dost  cause 
light.  Of  all  things  that  can  be  named,  Thou  dost  form  the 
fabric  !  Of  bronze  and  of  lead,  Thou  art  the  melter !  Of  sil- 
ver and  of  gold,  Thou  art  the  refiner !  ...  Of  the  wicked  man 
in  the  night-time  ;  Thou  dost  repel  the  assault !  But  the  man 
who  serves  his  god,  Thou  wilt  give  him  light  for  his  actions." 

STUDY  ON   I  AND  2. 

What  were  the  two  centres  of  power  in  the  Tigro-Euphrates  valley  V 
What  gave  men  power  and  greatness  in  this  valley  ?  Make  a  list  of  the 
arts  and  sciences  known  to  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.  Of  indus- 
tries. What  right  had  they  to  be  called  civilized  ?  How  were  they  not 
civilized  ?  On  whom  were  they  dependent  for  all  the  civilization  they 
had  ?  With  what  or  whom  was  the  king  identified  ?  Who  were 
thought  to  aid  him,  and  for  whom  did  he  fight?  Which  deities  were 
better,  those  of  Assyria,  or  Egypt  ?  Prove  it.  What  was  the  am- 
bition of  an  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  king?  Which  of  these  kings 
do  you  consider  greatest,  and  why  ? 

What  did  the  Assyrio-Babylonians  believe  about  the  number  and 
nature  of  the  deities  ?  About  the  future  existence  of  the  soul  ?  How 
were  their  gods  reached,  and  how  pleased?  What  made  fire  seem 


STUDY   ON   PHOENICIA.  23 

divine  ?     What  proves  that  they  believed  in  the  interference  of  the 
gods  in  the  human  affairs  ? 

What  did  the  Assyrians  seem  to  admire  in  art?     What  was  the 
purpose  of  such  a  winged,  colossal  figure  as  is  represented  on  p.  19  ? 


C.     STUDY   ON  PHCENIOIA. 

Chief  contemporary  authorities  :  Hebrew  scriptures  and 
a  few  scattered  inscriptions ;  other  original  authorities  : 
notices  of  the  Greek  writers,  and  Josephus. 

Chief  modern  authorities  accessible  in  English  :  Ken- 
rick,  Heeren,  Rawlinson  Lenormaiit,  Duiicker. 

PERIODS  OF  HISTORY.* 

1500(?)-1100(?),  —  Sidonian  power  greatest. 

1100(?)  to  about  850,  —  Tyrian  power  greatest. 

850  onward,  —  Phoenicia  for  the  most  part  subject  to  foreigners. 

1.  Leading  Events,  Works,  and  Names  of  the  Phoenician, 
History. 

Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  builds  and  restores  splen-  I  ABOUT  I 
did  temples ;  constructs  a  new  harbor,  lines  the  I  1025t  I 
old  one  with  quays,  arid  protects  all  by  a  strong  dyke; 
sends  an  exploring  expedition  through  the  Red  Sea  to 
India  (Ophir). 

The  Phoenicians  establish  colonies  in  Cyprus,  I  BEFOBE~] 
Rhodes,  and  the  Greek  Archipelago ;  on  the  I  7'?6'  I 
coasts  of  Greece  itself,  in  Sicily,  Spain,  and  Northern 
Africa;  the  most  famous  are  Paphos,  in  Cyprus,  —  Lily- 
bseum  and  Panormus,  in  Sicily,  —  Utica  and  Carthage, 
in  Africa,  —  Tartessus  and  Gacles  (Cadiz),  in  Spain. 
They  obtain  British  tin  and  Baltic  amber,  probably  by 

1  All  dates  B.C. 


24  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTOilY. 

an  overland  trade,  at  the  mouths  of  'the  Rhine  and  Po ; 
from  the  Red  Sea  they  reach  India,  and  bring  thence 
its  carved  ivories,  its  wrought  metals,  and  finely-woven 
stuffs ;  they  cause  the  gold  and  silver  mines  of  Greece  to 
be  opened  and  worked. 

They  adapt  the  Egyptian  characters  to  the  phonetic 
alphabet,  which  becomes  the  basis  of  the  Hebrew,  Greek, 
Latin,  and  following  European  alphabets. 

2.   Extracts  Illustrative  of  Phoenician  Civilization. 

Description  of  Tyre. 

"Thy  borders  are  in  the  midst  of  the  seas,  thy  builders  have 
perfected  thy  beauty.  They  have  made  all  thy  ship  boards  of 
fir  trees  :  .  .  .  they  have  taken  cedars  from  Lebanon  to  make 
masts  for  thee.  Of  ...  oaks  .  .  .  have  they  made  thine 
oars  ;  the  company  of  the  Asshurites  (Assyrians) ,  have  made 
thy  benches  of  ivory.  .  .  .  Fine  linen  with  broidered  work  from 
Egypt  was  that  which  thou  spreadest  forth  to  be  thy  sail ;  blue 
and  purple  from  the  isles  of  Elishah  was  that  which  covered 
thee.  The  inhabitants  of  Zidon  and  Arvad  were  thy  mariners  : 
thy  wise  men,  O  Tyrus  (Tyre),  that  were  in  thee,  were  thy 
pilots.  .  .  .  Tarshish  (Tartessus)  was  thy  merchant  by  reason 
of  the  multitude  of  all  kinds  of  riches  ;  with  silver,  iron,  tin,  and 
lead  they  traded  in  thy  fairs.  .  .  .  Syria  was  thy  merchant  by 
reason  of  the  multitude  of  the  wares  of  thy  making :  they  occu- 
pied in  thy  fairs  with  emeralds,  purple,  and  broidered  work, 
and  fine  linen,  and  coral,  and  agate.  Judah,  and  the  land  of 
Israel,  they  were  thy  merchants :  they  traded  in  thy  market 
wheat,  ...  and  honey,  and  oil,  and  balm.  .  .  .  Arabia,  and 
all  the  princes  of  Kedar,  they  occupied  with  thee  in  lambs,  and 
rams,  and  goats."  —  EzeTfiel  xxvii. 

The  prophet  also  names,  among  articles  of  merchandise,  the 
"  persons  of  men,"  "vessels  of  brass,"  horses,  horsemen,  mules, 
"precious  horns  of  ivory  and  ebony,"  wine,  white  wool,  iron, 
cassia,  "  precious  clothes  for  chariots." 


STUDY  ON   THE   JEWS.  £5 

From  an  Assyrian  Inscription. 

"I  attacked  the  city  of  Sidou,  standing  in  the  midst  of  the 
sea.  ...  I  carried  away  all  that  I  could  pf  its  treasures  ;  gold, 
silver,  precious  stones,  amber,  seal-skins,  sandal-wood,  and 
ebony,  stuffs  dyed  purple  and  blue." 

STUDY  ON   I  AND  2. 

Make  a  list  of  the  occupations  and  industries  of  the  Phoenicians. 
What  occupation  was  their  own  as  distinct  from  Assyrians,  Babylo- 
nians, and  Egyptians  ?  In  order  to  carry  on  this  occupation,  what  others 
must  they  have?  Where  would  the  Phoenicians  find  the  best  market 
for  their  goods,  and  why  ?  What  would  they  learn  from  their  occu- 
pation that  we  learn  from  books  ?  What  reason  can  you  find  in  the 
physical  geography  of  Phoenicia  for  its  chief  occupations  ?  Of  what 
use  were  the  Phoenicians  to  the  world  of  their  own  time  ?  Of  times 
since  then?  Make  a  list  of  the  countries  which  must  have  been 
visited  by  them.  Why  should  they  receive  amber  and  tin  at  the 
mouths  of  the  Po  and  Rhone  rather  than  at  any  other  point  along 
the  coast?  How  did  Phoenicia  begin  the  civilization  of  Europe? 

In  General.  —  What  right  have  the  Assyrians,  Babylonians, 
Phoenicians,  and  Egyptians  to  be  called  civilized?  What  facts  among 
those  given  prove  the  highest  civilization  ?  What  sort  of  civilization 
is  seen  in  these  facts  ? 


D.    STUDY   ON   THE   JEWS. 

Chief  contemporary  sources  of  its  history:  its  own 
scriptures  and  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  records;  other 
original  authority,  Josephus. 

Chief  modern  authorities  accessible  in  English:  Milman, 
Ewald,  Stanley,  Wellhausen,  Duncker,  Kuenen. 

PERIODS  OF  HisxoRY.1 

Exodus  from  Egypt,  1320(?). 

Period  of  Judges,  Conquest  of  Palestine,  1320(?)-10oo(?). 

1  All  dates  B.C. 


26  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Period  of  United  Monarchy,  Saul,  David,  Solomon,  1055(?)-953(?) 
Period  of  Divided  Monarchy  and  Decline,  953(?)-586. 
The  people  taken  captive  and  Jerusalem  destroyed  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, 586. 

1.    Leading  Events,  Names,  and  Works,  1320  (2)-586. 


ABOUT 
1320. 


Moses,  a  priest,  "  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of 
the  Egyptians,"  leads  the  Jews  out  of  Egypt, 
where  they  had  been  in  bondage,  into  Palestine ;  gives 
the  people  a  code  of  civil  law  in  the  name  of  one  God, 
Jehovah ;  these  laws  and  the  early  history  of  the  world, 
and  of  the  Jews,  are  embodied  in  the  first  five  books  of 
the  Old  Testament. 

Joshua,  the  minister  of  Moses,  leads  the  Jews 
to  conquer  a  place  for  themselves  in  Palestine ; 


the  strongholds  of  the  country  are  taken,  and  the  Jews, 
settled  by  their  twelve  tribes,  become  the  chief  people  of 
Palestine. 

Constant  war  between  the  Jews,  who  believe 
in  one  God,  and  the  other  people  of  Palestine,  who 
are  polytheists  and  idolaters.  The  rulers  of  the 


Jews  are  prophets,  priests,  or  men  believed  to  be  chosen 
by  God  himself ;  they  are  leaders  in  battle,  and  a  continu- 
ous record  of  their  deeds  is  preserved  in  the  Old  Testament. 
Saul  is  anointed  the  first  king  of  the  Jews  by 
the  prophet  Samuel,  who  is  his  chief  adviser  until 
his  death.  Under  his  rule,  Palestine  is  more 
thoroughly  brought  under  the  Jewish  dominion. 

David  is  secretly  anointed  Saul's  successor  by  the  proph- 
et Samuel,  and  on  Saul's  death  is  chosen  by  the  people 
as  king,  being  their  strongest  warrior  and  a  very  devout 
man.  He  makes  Jerusalem  the  chief  city  of  Palestine,  he 
conquers  and  holds  much  neighboring  territory,  and 
gathers  a  great  treasure  for  building  a  temple  in  honor  of 


STUDY   ON   THE   JEWS.  27 

Jehovah;  dies  before  he  begins  it;  chief  advisers,  the 
priests  and  prophets.  He  composes  many  psalms  for  use 
in  sacred  service.  Solomon,  his  son,  becomes  king  of 
Palestine ;  forms  alliances  with  Egypt  and  Phoenicia ; 
builds  the  great  temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  a  rich  palace  for 
himself,  using  in  both  great  quantities  of  gold  and  silver, 
of  precious  woods,  and  fine  carved  work,  mostly  made  by 
Tyrian  workmen ;  poet,  scholar,  and  author  of  many 
Proverbs.  A  continuous  historical  record  of  this  whole 
period  is  made  by  the  Jewish  priests,  and  preserved  in  the 
Old  Testament. 

A  continuous  record   is   kept   by  the    priests 
during  this  last  period,  and  a  mass  of  religious 
poetry  is  written    by  Isaiah,  Ezekiel,  Jeremiah, 
and  other  prophets ;  otherwise,  there  are  no  notable  works 
or  deeds  among  the  Jews  before  586. 

2.   Extracts  Illustrative  of  Jeivish  Relief  and  Feeling. 

From  the  Laws. 

"  And  God  spake  all  these  words,  saying,  I  am  the  Lord  tin* 
God,  which  have  brought  thee  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt.  .  .  . 
Thou  shalt  have  no  other  gods  before  me.  Thou  shalt  not 
make  unto  thee  any  graven  image.  .  .  .  Honour  thy  father  and 
thy  mother :  that  thy  days  may  be  long  upon  the  land  which  the 
Lord  thy  God  giveth  thee.  Thou  shalt  not  kill.  Thou  shalt  not 
commit  adultery.  Thou  shalt  not  steal.  Thou  shalt  not  bear 
false  witness  against  thy  neighbour.  Thou  shalt  not  covet.  .  .  . 
If  thou  buy  an  Hebrew  servant,  six  years  'he  shall  serve  :  and  in 
the  seventh  he  shall  go  out  free  for  nothing.  .  .  .  Thou  shalt 
give  life  for  life,  eye  for  eye,  tooth  for  tooth,  foot  for  foot. 
.  .  .  He  that  sacrificeth  unto  any  God,  save  unto  the  Lord 
only,  he  shall  be  utterly  destroyed.  Thou  shalt  neither  vex  a 
stranger,  nor  oppress  him  :  for  ye  were  strangers  in  the  land  of 
Egypt.  Ye  shall  not  afflict  any  widow  or  fatherless  child.  If 


28  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

thou  afflict  them  in  any  wise,  and  they  cry  at  all  unto  me,  I  will 
surely  hear  their  cry.  .  .  .  Thou  shalt  not  wrest  the  judgment 
of  thy  poor  in  his  cause.  Keep  thee  far  from  a  false  matter ; 
and  the  innocent  and  righteous  slay  thou  not :  for  I  will  not 
justify  the  wicked." 

From  the  Psalms. 

"  The  Lord  also  will  be  a  refuge  for  the  oppressed,  a  refuge 
in  times  of  trouble.  .  .  .  The  Lord  is  king  for  ever  and  ever : 
the  heathen  are  perished  out  of  his  land.  Lord,  thou  hast 
heard  the  desire  of  the  humble  :  thou  wilt  prepare  their  heart, 
thou  wilt  cause  thine  ear  to  hear :  to  judge  the  fatherless  and 
the  oppressed,  that  the  man  of  the  earth  may  no  more  oppress. 
...  It  is  God  that  girdeth  me  with  strength,  and  maketh  my 
way  perfect.  ...  He  teacheth  my  hands  to  war,  so  that  a  bow 
of  steel  is  broken  by  mine  arms.  .  .  .  Thou  hast  also  given 
me  the  works  of  mine  enemies  ;  that  I  might  destroy  them  that 
hate  me.  .  .  .  Some  trust  in  chariots,  and  some  in  horses  :  but 
we  will  remember  the  name  of  the  Lord  our  God.  They  are 
brought  down  and  fallen  :  but  we  are  risen  and  stand  upright. 
.  .  .  Many  are  the  afflictions  of  the  righteous  :  but  the  Lord 
delivereth  him  out  of  them  all.  He  keepeth  all  his  bones  :  not 
one  of  them  is  broken.  Evil  shall  slay  the  wicked :  and  they 
that  hate  the  righteous  shall  be  desolate.  .  .  .  Blessed  is  he 
that  considereth  the  poor  :  the  Lord  will  deliver  him  in  time  of 
trouble.  .  .  .  For  the  Lord  most  high  is  terrible  ;  he  is  a  great 
king  over  all  the  earth.  He  shall  subdue  the  people  under  us, 
and  the  nations  under  our  feet." 

From  the  Proverbs. 

"My  son,  if  sinners  entice  thee,  consent  thou  not.  .  .  . 
When  wisdom  entereth  into  thine  heart,  and  knowledge  is 
pleasant  unto  thy  soul ;  discretion  shall  preserve  thee,  under- 
standing shall  keep  thee.  .  .  .  Let  not  mercy  and  truth  forsake 
thee  :  bind  them  about  thy  neck  ;  write  them  upon  the  table  of 
thine  heart :  so  shalt  thou  find  favour  and  good  understanding  in 


STUDY   ON   THE   JEWS.  29 

the  sight  of  G  od  and  man.  Trust  in  the  Lord  with  all  thine  heart ; 
and  lean  not  unto  thine  own  understanding.  lu  all  thy  ways 
acknowledge  him,  and  he  shall  direct  thy  paths.  .  .  .  Devise 
not  evil  against  thy  neighbour,  seeing  he  dwelleth  securely  by 
thee.  .  .  .  The  curse  of  the  Lord  is  in  the  house  of  the  wicked  : 
but  he  blesseth  the  habitation  of  the  just.  Surely  he  scorneth 
the  scoruers  :  but  he  giveth  grace  unto  the  lowly." 

STUDY  ON   I  AND   2. 

What  seems  to  be  the  chief  influence  in  Jewish  life?  What 
class  of  people  are  most  powerful?  Prove  it  from  1  and  2.  In  what 
sort  of  works  are  they  especially  rich?  What  class  produce  these 
works?  Judging  from  the  extracts,  what  are  some  of  the  chief 
requirements  of  their  moral  code?  What  is  true  of  its  spirit? 
What  classes  are  especially  cared  for?  What  historical  reason  for 
this?  What  virtues  seem  to  be  especially  admired  among  them? 
How  does  their  belief  conspicuously  differ  from  that  of  other  peo- 
ples of  their  time  ?  How  is  their  morality  superior  to  that  of  the 
Assyrians?  How  does  the  quality  of  their  poetry  as  seen  in  the 
Psalms  compare  with  the  hymns  and  prayers  of  the  Assyrians  and 
Egyptians?  What  conspicuous  quality  of  character  do  they  ascribe 
to  Jehovah?  On  what  do  they  chiefly  depend  in  war? 

In  General. —  What  did  each  of  the  nations  we  have  been  studying 
care  for  most?  or,  to  put  it  differently,  what  was  the  ideal  man  and 
the  ideal  life  among  each  people  ?  Which  ideal  was,  in  your  opinion, 
the  best?  What  did  each  people  do  that  has  endured  and  been  of 
use  to  all  the  world?  Which  people  seem  to  you  least  useful?  What 
is  the  application  of  the  motto  given  on  p.  3  ? 


GREECE, 

WITH     THE 

SHORES  A"o  ISLANDS 
A         °F  THE 

AEGAEAN. 


32  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


HELLAS,  1000(?)-338   B.C. 

PERIODS    OF    HISTORY. i 

A.  Homeric,  Heroic,  Legendary  Age  before  776. 

B.  Colonizing,  Formative  Period,  776-500. 

C.  Struggle  with  the  Persians,  500-479. 

D.  Athenian  Leadership,  479-431. 

E.  Peloponnesian  War,  431-404. 

F.  Spartan,  Theban,  and  Macedonian  Leaderships,  404-338. 

G.  Macedonian  Conquest,  338. 

"  For  the  whole  earth  is  the  sepulchre  of  famous  men  ;  not  only  ar& 
they  commemorated  by  columns  and  inscriptions  in  their  own  country,  but 
in  foreign  lands  there  dwells  also  an  unwritten  memorial  of  them,  graven 
not  on  stone,  but  in  the  hearts  of  men.  Make  them  your  examples,  and, 
esteeming  courage  to  be  freedom,  and  freedom  to  be  happiness,  do  not 
weigh  too  nicely  the  perils  of  war."  —  PERICLES. 


Note  on  Map  of  Greece.  —  The  purple  fish,  which  the  Phoeni- 
cians used  in  dyeing  their  linens  and  wools,  was  found  along  the  eastern 
shore-  of  Greece ;  this  shore  abounded  in  deep  and  sheltering  bays, 
while  the  western  coast  was  mostly  composed  of  steep  rock  or  flat 
marsh.  Iron  was  found  in  Eubcea,  Bceotia,  Melos,  and  Laconia, 
copper  in  Cyprus  and  Eubcea,  silver  in  Attica,  gold  and  silver  in 
Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Epirus ;  marble  was  found  in  the  moun- 
tains and  islands,  the  best  coming  from  Paros  and  Pentelicon. 
Nearly  every  state  and  island  had  its  own  fertile  wheat-fields,  its 
own  mountain-forests,  and  sheep-pastures ;  while  the  soil  was  favor- 
able for  vine  and  olive  culture. 

The  people  dressed  in  wool  or  linen,  and  ate  either  barley  or  wheat 
oread,  with  olive  oil  for  a  relish,  and  wine  for  their  drink ;  in  Arcadia, 
pork,  in  Attica,  fish,  was  generally  added  to  this  diet. 

1  Dates  all  B.C. 


STUDY    ON    HEROIC    AGE.  66 

STUDY    ON    MAP   AND   NOTE. 

What  natural  boundaries  has  Greece  in  each  direction  ?  Give  the 
geographical  reasons  for  the  boundary  of  Thessaly.  How  far  do  these 
reasons  apply  to  the  boundaries  of  other  Greek  states  ?  What  advan- 
tages are  there  in  such  boundaries?  How  far  are  the  Greek  states 
able  to  supply  their  own  needs  for  clothing,  food,  weapons,  and 
shelter?  What  effect  will  this  have  on  the  independence  of  the 
various  states?  Compare  the  size  of  the  Greek  states  with  other 
ancient  and  modern  states. 

Make  a  list  of  the  occupations  which  you  think  the  Greeks  may 
have.  Which  of  these  occupations  will  be  common  to  all  Greece? 
Which  will  be  found  in  Attica?  In  Arcadia?  In  Laconia?  Will 
it  be  easier  to  get  to  Asia  or  to  other  parts  of  Europe  from  Greece  ? 
Why  ?  Why  was  it  more  desirable  to  go  to  Asia  than  to  Europe  easily  ? 
From  which  state  of  Greece  is  that  way  easiest? 

Make  a  list  of  reasons  why  the  geography  of  Greece  is  favorable 
to  an  early  civilization.  To  which  state  of  Greece  do  these  reasons 
most  strongly  apply  ? 


A.     STUDY   Otf  HEEOIO   AGE. 

Chief  contemporary  sources  of  its  history:  Homeric 
poems,  the  Iliad,  Odyssey,  and  Hymns ;  the  monuments 
at  Mycenee,  Tiryns  (in  Argos),  and  in  the  Troad. 

Other  original  sources :  Hesiod  and  the  Greek  tragedians, 
Herodotus. 

Chief  modern  authorities :  Grote,  Curtius,  Duncker. 

1.  Some  of  the  More  Famous  Events,  Men,  and  Works 
of  the  Heroic  or  Mythical  Age. 

The  Settlement  of  Greece.  —  In  the  Greek  myths  regard- 
ing the  earliest  settlement  of  Greece,  we  find  it  told  that 
the  founder  of  Athens  came  from  Egypt ;  that  the  rulers 
of  Argos  were  partly  of  Egyptian  race ;  that  the  founder 
of  Thebes  was  Cadmus  the  Phoanician ;  and  that  Pelops, 
whose  descendants  became  the  kings  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
was  of  Asia  Minor.  The  walls  and  sculptures  of  Mycense 


34 


STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


were  said  to  have  been  built  by  Asiatic  help ;  the  intro- 
duction of  the  alphabet  was  ascribed  to  Cadmus;  while 
wheat  was  said  to  have  been  introduced  from  Libya.  In 
the  Greek  language,  the  following  words  are  of  Phoenician 
origin:  linen,  sack-cloth,  myrrh,  frankincense,  cinnamon, 
soap,  lyres,  wine-jars,  cosmetics,  writing-tablets. 


THE  LION-GATE  OP  MYCENJ3. 

The  Expedition  of  the  Argonauts.  — -  In  Colchis,  Oil  the 
Black  Sea,  there  was,  it  was  said,  a  fleece  of  pure  gold. 
To  obtain  this  prize,  Jason,  a  Thessalian  Greek,  sailed 
with  a  band  of  heroes  through  the  Hellespont  to  Colchis, 
whence  they  brought  this  golden  fleece. 


STUDY    ON    HEROIC   AGE.  35 

The  Trojan  War.  —  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy, 
had  seized  Helen,  wife  of  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  and 
had  carried  her  home  to  the  Troad.  So  Menelaus  and  his 
brother  Agamemnon,  king  of  Mycenae,  called  their  warriors 
together  and  sailed  for  Troy,  and  with  them  went  many 
other  chiefs  of  Greece ;  notably,  Achilles,  king  of  the 
Myrmidons,  from  Thessaly ;  Ajax,  son  of  the  king  of  Sala- 
mis;  Diomed,  a  chief  from  Argos;  Odysseus  (Ulysses), 
king  of  Ithaca ;  Nestor,  king  of  Pylos.  For  niae  years 
they  laid  siege  to  Troy,  which  at  last  fell  into  their  hands, 
and  was  destroyed. 

The  Dorian  Migration. —  The  Thessalians  entered  Thes- 
saly from  Epirus,  settling  and  naming  the  land.  Those 
before  dwelling  in  Thessaly  moved  to  the  southward; 
among  them  were  the  Dorians,  who,  under  the  lead  of  the 
sons  of  the  god-born  Heracles  (Hercules),  conquered  and 
settled  the  greater  part  of  Peloponnesus,  forming  the  states 
of  Sparta,  Elis,  Messenia,  Argos,  Corinth.  The  lonians, 
who  were  before  in  Peloponnesus,  now  crossed  to  Lydia, 
where  they  founded  twelve  cities,  Ephesus  and  Miletus 
being  the  greatest.  The  people  of  these  twelve  cities 
erected  at  Mycale  a  temple,  called  Panioriium,  where  they 
all  went  and  worshipped  Poseidon,  with  a  joyous  festi- 
val. Such  a  union  was  called  an  Amphictyony,  and  similar 
unions  were  formed  in  many  of  the  Greek  states. 

The  Homeric  Poems. —  About  1000,  the  bards  began  to 
sing  and  recite  the  story  of  the  Trojan  war  (the  Iliad) 
and  the  wanderings  of  Odysseus  on  his  return  from  Troy 
(Odyssey).  The  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  together  with  certain 
hymns  to  the  gods,  have  long  been  attributed  to  the  poet 
Homer,  though  their  authorship  and  date  are  much  disputed. 

The  Establishment  of  the  Delphic  Oracle.  —  The  god  Apollo, 
descending  from  Olympus,  looked  on  the  hills  and  groves 
of  Greece,  to  choose  a  spot  where  he  would  reveal  to  men 


36  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

the  will  of  Zeus  and  the  events  of  the  future,  and  whence 
he  would  give  them  advice  in  their  perplexing  affairs.  He 
chose  the  slopes  of  Parnassus,  and  there  the  temple  of 
Delphi  was  built  in  his  honor;  and  for  priests  he  chose  the 
Cretans  of  a  passing  ship,  who  knew  the  sacred  hymns 
addressed  to  him  in  Crete.  In  this  temple  always  dwelt  a 
priestess,  through  whom  Apollo  spoke  to  men,  told  them 
of  the  future,  and  how  to  guide  the  present  aright.  Thus, 
according  to  the  myth,  was  founded  the  famous  Delphic 
Oracle.  To  guard  it,  a  council  was  formed,  comprising 
members  from  all  the  leading  Greek  states,  and  known  as 
The  Amphictyonic  Council. 

The  Laws  of  Lycurgus.  —  (See  p.  56.) 

2.   List  of  the  Chief  Gods  of  the  Greeks,  with  their 
Attributes. 

ZEUS  (Jove,  Jupiter),  the  god  of  the  sky,  controlling  rains,  clouds, 

and  weather  in  general. 

POSEIDON  (Neptune),  god  of  the  sea,  controlling  calm  and  storm. 
APOLLO,  god  of  wisdom,  of  medicine,  music,  and  poetry;  giving  power 

to  heal,  and  inspiring  lays  and  poems ;  afterward,  god  of  the  sun. 
ARES  (Mars),  god  of  war,  of  physical  force,  controlling  the  field  of 

battle. 
HEPHAESTUS  (Vulcan),  god  of  fire,  and  of  all  the  forging  and  casting 

and  moulding  of  metals;  giving  skill  in  all  metal  work;  repre- 
sented as  lame. 
HERMES  (Mercury),  god  of  cunning ;  of  inventive  skill ;  of  commercial 

sharpness  and  wit. 

HERA  (Juno),  wife  of  Zeus  and  queen  of  the  sky. 
ATHEXA  (Minerva),  daughter  of  Zeus,  arid  goddess  of  wisdom;   of 

strategy  in  war ;  of  housewifery. 
AHTEMIS  (Diana),  sister  of  Apollo,  goddess  of  hunting;   afterward 

goddess  of  the  moon. 

APHRODITE  (Venus),  goddess  controlling  marriage  and  love. 
DEMETER  (Ceres),  goddess  of  harvest,  controlling  the  yield  of  the  seed 

and  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
HESTIA  (Vesta),  goddess  of  fire,  especially  of  the  hearth-fire,  thus 

becoming  the  deity  of  the  home. 


STUDY   ON   HEROIC   AGE.  37 

These  were  the  twelve  great  gods;  besides  these,  Diony- 
sius  (Bacchus)  was  widely  worshipped.  He  was  the  god 
of  wine,  controlling  the  yield  of  the  vineyards  and  inspir- 
ing drunken  madness.  Every  wood,  every  stream,  every 
mountain,  had  its  own  presiding  spirit,  who  might  be 
approached  and  pleased  by  prayers  and  gifts. 

The  following  phrases  are  used  of  the  gods :  "  the  gods 
who  live  forever;"  "all  power  is  with  the  gods;"  "the 
gods,  if  willing,  can  save  a  man,  even  from  a  distance." 

STUDY  ON  I  AND  2. 

In  what  way  were  the  Greeks  evidently  accustomed  to  go  from  place 
;o  place?  What  occupation  would  this  encourage?  What  effect 
would  this  habit  have  on  civilization?  Why?  What  do  the  myths 
indicate  of  the  origin  of  Greek  civilization  ?  What  does  the  list  of 
words  given  tell  us  of  the  Phoenicians?  Of  the  Greeks?  Which 
tribes  were  most  active  in  the  Heroic  Age?  Why  should  an  early 
movement  have  taken  place  to  gain  Thessaly  ?  (See  Map.)  In  what 
geographical  directions  did  the  Greek  movements  take  place?  Why? 
What  do  you  understand  by  an  Amphictyony?  Name  two  things 
which  were  in  common  to  those  belonging  to  an  Amphictyony. 

What  does  2  indicate  in  regard  to  the  occupations  of  the  Greeks  ? 
What  reason  had  they  for  propitiating  each  of  their  gods?  What 
relation  evidently  existed  between  their  religion  and  their  life  and 
surroundings? 

What  proofs  of  intellectual  life  among  the  Greeks  of  the  Heroic 
Age  ?  What  directions  did  it  take.  The  "  Lion-gate  "  indicates  the 
beginnings  of  what  arts? 

3.   Extracts  Illustrative  of  Heroic  Age. 

a.   Agamemnon's  Coimcils  of  War.     (Iliad.) 

In  the  ninth  and  final  year  of  the  Trojan  war,  the  issues  of 
the  contest  still  being  doubtful,  Agamemnon,  king  of  Mycenae, 
called  together  a  "  council  of  the  great-hearted  elders,"  the 
leaders  of  the  people,  and  said  :  "  A  dream  from  heaven  came  to 
me  in  my  sleep  .  .  .  and  charged  me,  saying ;  .  .  .  '  To  sleep  all 
night  beseemeth  not  one  who  is  a  councilor,  to  whom  the  host 
is  entrusted.  ...  I  am  a  messenger  to  thee  from  Zeus  who  •  .  » 


38  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

hath  great  care  for  thee  and  pity.  He  biddeth  thee  call  to  arms 
the  Greeks,  for  now  thou  mayest  take  .  .  .  the  city  of  the  Tro- 
jans.' So  spake  the  dream.  ...  So  come,  let  us  now  call  to 
arms  .  .  .  the  sons  of  the  Greeks.  But  first  I  will  make  trial  of 
them  .  .  .  and  will  bid  them  flee  .  .  .  only  do  ye  from  this  side 
and  from  that  speak  to  hold  them  back."  To  this  the  chiefs 
agreed,  and  when  the  people  were  assembled,  Agamemnon  pro- 
posed a  return  to  Greece,  "  and  they  with  shouting  hasted  to 
the  ships  ;  "  but  Odysseus,  king  of  Ithaca,  who  had  been  pres- 
ent at  the  council  of  the  elders,  ran  among  the  folk  to  call  them 
back;  "  whenever  he  found  one  that  was  a  captain  and  a  man 
of  mark,  he  ...  refrained  him  with  gentle  words :  '  Good  sir, 
it  is  not  seemly  to  affright  thee  like  a  coward,  but  do  thou  sit 
thyself  and  make  all  thy  folks  sit  down.'  .  .  .  But  whatever 
man  of  the  people  he  saw  .  .  .  shouting,  him  he  drave  with 
his  scepter  and  chode  .  .  . ;  '  Good  sir,  sit  still  and  heark- 
en to  the  words  of  others  that  are  thy  betters ;  but  thou  art 
no  warrior  and  .  .  .  never  reckoned ;  whether  in  battle  or 
in  council  ...  let  there  be  one  master,  one  king,  whom  Zeus 
hath  given  the  scepter  and  made  the  giver  of  the  laws  to  all 
the  rest.' " 

The  assembled  Greeks  were  now  addressed  in  favor  of  war, 
first  by  one  and  then  another  prince ;  at  last,  after  a  speech  by 
Odysseus,  the  Greeks  "  shouted  aloud  and  praised  the  saying 
of  godlike  "  Odysseus  ;  and  after  two  more  speeches  from  their 
princes  they  eagerly  went  to  their  tents  to  prepare  for  battle. 
"  And  they  did  sacrifice,  each  man  to  one  of  the  everlasting  gods, 
praying  for  escape  from  death."  But  Agamemnon  offered  sac- 
rifice to  Zeus,  "and  called  the  elders,  the  princes  of  the  .  .  . 
host,"  to  stand  around  the  sacrifice  while  thus  he  prayed ; 
"  Zeus,  most  glorious,  most  great  god  of  the  stormcloud,  .  .  . 
grant  that  the  sun  set  not,  .  .  .  till  I  have  laid  low  upon  the 
earth  Priam's  palace." 

Then  each  chief  marshalled  his  own  men  for  war,  except 
Achilles,  who  was  angry  with  Agamemnon  (see/.),  and  would 
neither  come  to  council  nor  to  war,  though  Agamemnon  sent 
him  many  gifts,  entreating  him. 


STUDY   OX   HEROIC    AGE.  39 

Again,  while  the  Trojans  were  keeping  watch,  the  Greeks 
"  were  holden  of  heaven-sent  panic  "  ;  and  again  Agamemnon 
summoned  an  assembly,  in  which  he  advised  a  return  to  Greece  ; 
but  all  kept  silence  until  prince  Diomed  arose  and  said ;  —  ... 
"  With  thee  first  in  thy  folly  will  I  contend.  .  .  .  O  King  .  .  . 
deemest  thou  that  the  sons  of  the  Greeks  are  thus  indeed  cow- 
ards? ...  if  thine  own  heart  is  set  on  departing,  go  thy  wav. 
.  .  .  But  the  rest  will  tarry  here."  Him  the  Greeks  applauded, 
shouting  aloud,  and  after  him  another  chief  arose  and  advised 
Agamemnon  to  call  a  council  of  the  elders,  saying,  "  In  the 
gathering  of  many  shalt  thou  listen  to  him  that  deviseth  the 
most  prudent  council ;  "  and  thus  did  Agamemnon. 

b.    The  Law-suit.     (Iliad.) 

"The  folk  were  gathered  in  the  assembly-place,  for  there  a 
strife  was  arisen,  two  men  striving  about  the  price  of  a  man 
slain  ; l  the  one  avowed  that  he  had  paid  all,  expounding  to  the 
people,  but  the  other  denied  that  he  had  received  aught :  .  .  . 
and  the  folk  were  cheering  both,  as  they  took  part  on  either 
side ;  .  .  .  while  the  elders  were  sitting  in  the  sacred  circle.  .  .  . 
Then  before  the  people,  they  rose  up  and  gave  judgment." 

STUDY  ON  a  AND  &. 

What  title  has  the  chief  ruler  among  the  Greeks?  Make  a  list  of 
the  things  which  he  does.  What  title  may  he  have  on  account  of  each 
one  of  these  duties  ?  How  is  his  will  made  known  to  the  people  ? 
How  does  he  know  the  opinion  of  the  people  ?  Who  help  him  accom- 
plish his  will?  How  do  these  men  know  his  will?  What  means  do 
they  take  to  make  the  people  obey  ?  What  means  4oes  Agamemnon 
take  to  make  the  other  chiefs  or  kings  obey  ?  (See  case  of  Achilles.) 
How  many  sorts  of  assemblies,  or  meetings,  do  we  see  among  the 
Greeks  ?  Who  compose  each,  and  what  is  the  use  of  each  ?  What  takes 
the  place  of  each  nowadays,  in  our  own  country  ?  How  do  the  people 
show  their  opinion  of  proposals  made  to  them  ?  How  do  the  follow- 
ing extracts  show  this-  government  to  have  been  supported  ? 

1  In  case  of  murder,  the  matter  was  often  settled  by  the  murderer's  pay- 
ing a  sum  of  money  to  relatives  of  the  man  murdered. 


40  STUDIES  IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Odysseus,  king  of  Ithaca,  found,  on  his  return,  that  his  wife's  suitors 
had  wantonly  wasted  his  rich  flocks,  whereupon  he  said:  "But  as 
for  the  sheep  which  the  proud  wooers  have  slain,  I  myself  will  [seize] 
many  more  as  spoil,  and  others  the  Greeks  will  give,  till  they  fill  all 
my  folds.  .  .  .  But  now  go  to  my  well-wooded  farm-land ; "  there,  we 
are  told,  were  rich  vineyards,  and  orchards  of  pear  and  apple,  fig  and 
olive  trees. 

Achilles,  king  of  the  Myrmidons,  says,  speaking  of  his  successes  in 
war :  "  Many  a  man  I  took  alive  and  sold." 

Compare  this  form  of  government  with  that  of  Egypt  or  Assyria. 
What  is  the  most  conspicuous  difference  ? 

c.  Penelope  and  Telemachus.      (Odyssey.) 

Odysseus  was  so  delayed  in  his  return  to  Ithaca,  that  most 
of  the  Ithacans  thought  him  dead  ;  and  many  chiefs  came  to 
woo  his  wife  Penelope,  but  she  put  them  off,  hoping  against  hope 
for  the  return  of  her  husband.  One  day,  as  she  was  weaving 
with  her  women,  she  heard  a  minstrel  singing  to  her  suitors  of 
the  faring  of  the  Greeks  from  Troy,  and  weeping  she  appeared 
from  her  chamber,  and  asked  him  to  change  his  theme  ;  but 
Telemachus,  her  son,  said  to  her  :  .  .  .  "  Let  thy  heart  and  mine 
endure  to  listen,  for  not  Odysseus  only  lost  in  Troy  the  day  of 
his  returning,  but  many  another  likewise  perished.  Howbeit, 
go  to  thy  chamber  and  mind  thine  own  housewiferies,  the  loom 
and  distaff.  .  .  .  But  speech  shall  be  for  men  .  .  .  but  for  me  in 
chief ;  for  mine  is  the  lordship  in  the  house."  Soon  after,  one 
of  the  suitors  becoming  importunate,  said  to  Telemachus : 
"...  Send  away  thy  mother  and  bid  her  be  married  to  whom- 
soever her  father  commands,  and  whoso  is  well  pleasing  to  her." 
But  Telemachus  replied  :  "  I  may  in  no  wise  thrust  forth  .  .  .  the 
woman  that  bare  me,  that  reared  me :  ...  for  I  shall  have 
evil  at  the  hand  of  her  father,  and  some  god  will  give  me  more 
besides  .  .  .  and  I  shall  have  blame  of  men." 

d.  Odysseus  and  the  Phceacians.     (Odyssey.) 

In  the  course  of  his  wanderings,  Odysseus  was  shipwrecked 
on  the  coast  of  Phaeacia  (mythical).  Meanwhile,  Nausicaa, 


STUDY  ON  HEROIC   AGE.  41 

the  daughter  of  ...  a  Phaeacian  king,  came  down  to  the  river- 
side with  her  maidens  to  wash  ;  and  while  the  clothes  were  dry- 
ing and  the  maidens  playing  ball,  Odysseus  appeared,  asking 
help ;  and  the  princess  directed  him  to  the  palace  where  her 
mother  was  weaving  and  her  father  sitting  among  the  council- 
ors. The  next  day,  the  king  made  a  feast  for  Odysseus,  and 
after  it,  a  minstrel  "  that  was  had  in  honor  of  the  people  "  sang 
a  song  of  heroes  ;  then  all  went  forth  to  games,  matches  in 
wrestling,  racing,  and  throwing,  in  leaping  and  boxing ;  and 
the  king's  son  asked  Odysseus  to  join  them,  saying,  "...  there 
is  no  greater  glory  for  a  man  while  yet  he  lives,  than  that  which 
he  achieves  by  hand  and  foot."  Odysseus  consenting,  won  the 
praise  of  all  by  his  strength  and  skill ;  then  the  king  called 
forth  the  dancers,  "  that  so  the  stranger  may  tell  his  friends 
,  .  .  how  far  we  surpass  all  men  ...  in  speed  of  foot,  and  in 
the  dance  and  song."  Then  the  "  divine  "  minstrel  sang  again, 
and  Odysseus  told  the  company  the  story  of  his  wanderings. 

e.    The  Return  of  Odysseus.     (Odyssey.) 

On  the  return  of  Odysseus,  the  first  man  whom  he  met  was 
his  swineherd,  Eumaeus,  who  not  knowing  him,  yet  asked  him 
to  his  hut,  and  gave  him  bread  and  meat  and  wine,  and  when 
Odysseus  said,  "May  Zeus  .  .  .  and  all  the  other  deathless 
gods  grant  thee  thy  dearest  wish,  since  thou  hast  received  me 
heartily,"  the  swineherd  answered,  "It  were  an  impious  thing 
for  me  to  slight  a  stranger  .  .  .  for  from  Zeus  are  all  strangers 
and  beggars ;  .  .  .  the  gods  have  stayed  the  returning  of  my 
master,  who  would  have  loved  me  diligently  and  given  me  some- 
what of  my  own,  a  house  and  a  parcel  of  ground,  and  a  comely 
wife  such  as  a  kind  lord  gives  to  his  man."  And  Eumaeus 
told  him  of  the  insolent  wooers,  saying,  "Verily  the  blessed 
gods  love  not  froward  deeds  but  .  .  .  justice  and  the  righteous 
deeds  of  men."  Afterward  Odysseus  asked  the  swineherd  how 
he  chanced  to  come  to  Ithaca:  "  Was  a  ...  town  taken  and 
sacked,  wherein  dwelt  thy  father  and  thy  lady-mother,  or  did 
unfriendly  men  find  thee  lonely  .  .  .  and  ship  thee  hence  and 
sell  thee  into  the  house  of  thy  master  here  ?  " 


42  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Evnnseus  replied  that  he  was  born  a  king's  son  in  a  far-off 
land  ;  but  that  his  nurse,  enticed  away  by  Phoenicians,  carried 
him  with  her  to  their  ship,  which  quickly  sailed  away  ;  and 
coming  to  Ithaca  sold  him  to  the  king. 

On  reaching  the  palace  and  being  still  unrecognized,  Odys- 
seus boasted  of  his  strength  to  mow  a  whole  day  long,  and  to 
plow  a  straight  and  even  furrow  ;  and  later  revealed  himself  to 
Penelope  by  reminding  her  of  how  he  had  made  his  own  bed- 
stead, smoothing  it  with  the  adze,  boring  it  with  the  auger, 
inlaying  it  with  ivory,  silver,  and  gold,  and  how  about  it  he  had 

built  a  chamber,  "  with  stones  close-set." 

• 

STUDY  ON  c,  d,  e. 

Judging  from  these  extracts,  how  many  wives  does  one  husband 
have?  What  form  of  marriage  is  this  called?  Who  rules  the  house  V 
What  three  things  check  the  exercise  of  this  power  ?  What  name  is 
given  to  this  form  of  family  ?  Say  all  you  can  of  the  position  of 
woman  as  indicated  in  the  above  extracts. 

Make  a  list  of  the  occupations  named  or  indicated.  How  do  kings 
and  princesses  occupy  themselves?  Compare  their  occupations  with 
those  of  common  people.  With  those  of  modern  kings  and  queens. 
What  remark  can  you  make  (a)  about  simplicity?  and  (6)  about 
equality,  then  as  compared  with  now  ?  How  is  Odysseus  treated  by 
the  king  ?  by  the  swineherd  ? 

How  do  the  Greeks  amuse  themselves?  Have  such  amusements  a 
good  or  bad  effect  ?  Good  or  bad  in  what  way  ? 

To  what  social  class  does  Eumseus  belong?  How  does  he  com- 
pare in  birth  with  Odysseus?  How  is  he  treated?  How  are 
the  men  belonging  to  this  class  obtained  ?  What  other  classes 
appear  ?  [See,  also,  p.  38,  account  of  Odysseus  summoning  the  Greeks 
to  council.] 

/.    The  Wrath  of  Apollo.    (Iliad.) 

The  priest  of  Apollo  had  come  to  Agamemnon  to  ransom 
his  daughter,  whom  the  Greeks  had  taken  prisoner ;  but  Aga- 
memnon refused  his  gifts,  and  the  priest,  going  apart,  thus 
prayed  Apollo:  "Hear  me,  god  of  the  silver  bow  ...  If 
ever  I  built  a  temple  gracious  in  thine  eyes,  or  if  ever  I 


STUDY   ON    HEROIC   AGE.  43 

burnt  to  thee  fat  flesh  of  bulls  or  goats,  fulfil  thou  this  my 
prayer ;  let  the  [Greeks]  pay  by  thine  arrows  for  my  tears." 
And  Apollo  hearing  him,  "  came  down  from  the  peaks  of 
Olympus  wroth  in  heart.  .  .  .  And  the  arrows  clanged  upon  his 
shoulders  in  his  wrath,  as  the  god  moved."  For  nine  days 
he  sent  a  plague  among  the  Greeks,  but  on  the  tenth,  Achilles 
called  a  council,  "  for  in  his  mind  the  goddess  Hera  of  the 
white  arms  put  the  thought,"  for  she  grieved  to  see  the  sick 
and  dying  Greeks.  And  Achilles  thus  advised:  "Come,  let 
us  now  enquire  of  some  soothsaj^er  or  priest  or  an  interpreter  of 
dreams,  .  .  .  who  shall  say  wherefore  Apollo  is  so  wroth." 
Then  an  augur  arose,  declaring  that  Apollo  would  never  cease 
his  anger  till  Agamemnon  should  restore  the  daughter  of  his 
priest.  Agamemnon,  though  much  enraged,  obeyed,  but 
demanded  as  a  recompense  the  maid  who  had  been  given  to 
Achilles.  Then  a  grave  quarrel  arose  until  Achilles  was  even 
about  to  draw  his  sword  on  Agamemnon  ;  but  "  the  bright-eyed 
goddess  Athene  "  suddenly  appeared  and  bade  him  put  back 
the  sword,  and  cease  from  present  strife ;  and  Achilles,  though 
reluctant,  yielded,  saying,  "whosoever  obeyeth  the  gods,  to 
him  they  gladly  hearken."  So  the  priest  regained  his  daughter 
and  prayed  Apollo  to  remove  the  plague  from  the  Greeks  ;  and 
"  Apollo  heard  him,"  and  the  Greeks  offered  sacrifices  and 
"  all  day  long  .  .  .  worshiped  the  god  with  music  .  .  .  and  his 
heart  was  glad  to  hear." 

g.    The  Feast  on  Olympus. 

The  goddess  Hera,  wife  of  Zeus,  had  accused  him  of  plan- 
ning mischief  to  the  Greeks,  but  Zeus  replied,  "Abide  thou 
in  silence  and  hearken  to  my  bidding."  Then  Hera  feared, 
and  all  the  gods  were  troubled ;  but  her  son,  the  lame  Hephaes- 
tus, advised  her  to  submit  and  speak  to  Zeus  with  gentle  words, 
and  not  "bring  wrangling  among  the  gods."  "Then  he 
poured  wine  to  all  the  .  .  .  gods,  ladling  the  sweet  nectar 
from  the  bowl.  And  laughter  unquenchable  arose  among 
the  blessed  gods  to  see  Hephaestus  bustling  through  the 


GREECE 

and  the 

GREEK  COLONIES. 


^ 


Sardii, 


Ionian  ........  _  ............  O 

J>»rion  ..........  ---------  EH  . 

Other  Green  Baces.._._L3 


Phoenician.  ...  ....... 


46  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

palace.  So  feasted  they  all  day  till  the  setting  of  the  sun ; 
nor  was  their  soul  aught  stinted  of  the  fair  banquet,  nor  of 
the  beauteous  lyre  that  Apollo  held.  .  .  .  Now  when  the  bright 
light  of  the  sun  was  set,  these  went  each  to  his  own  house  to 
sleep,  where  each  one  had  his  palace  made  with  cunning  device 
by  famed  Hephaestus." 

li.    The  Visit  of  Odysseus  to  Hades. 

Odysseus  was  permitted,  while  yet  alive,  to  visit  the  homes 
of  the  dead  ;  and  first  he  ' '  besought  the  tribes  of  the  dead  in 
vows  and  prayers "  and  offered  sacrifice  to  them ;  and  then 
about  him  came  "  the  spirits  of  ...  old  men  of  many  and  evil 
days,  and  tender  maidens  .  .  .  and  many  .  .  .  wounded  with 
bronze-shod  spears,  men  slain  in  fight  with  their  bloody  mail 
about  them."  And  among  them  was  the  spirit  of  his  mother; 
but  when  he  tried  to  embrace  her,  she  flitted  away  like  "  a 
shadow  "  or  "  a  dream."  Among  the  rest  he  saw  Achilles, 
who  told  him:  "Rather  would  I  live  upon  the  earth  as  the 
hireling  or  the  landless  man,  who  has  no  great  livelihood,  than 
bear  sway  among  all  the  dead." 

STUDY  ON  /,  g,  h,  REFERRING  ALSO  TO  2. 

What  did  the  Greeks  believe  (a)  about  the  number,  (b)  about  the 
power,  (c)  about  the  relative  rank  of  their  gods  ?  What  part  or  parts 
of  the  world  seemed  to  them  under  divine  direction  ?  It  is  said  that 
the  Greek  gods  were  anthropomorphic,  or  like  men  :  prove  it  from  the 
text.  How  were  they  like  men  ?  How  unlike  ?  How  did  the  Greeks 
believe  they  could  please  or  persuade  their  gods?  Discover  their  will? 
What  spirit  seemed  to  pervade  their  worship?  Look  over  previous 
work,  and  find  additional  facts  to  prove  what  you  have  said.  What 
difference  between  the  Greek,  the  Egyptian,  and  the  Assyrian  gods  ? 
Find  three  things  that  the  Greeks  believed  of  the  future  state. 


STUDY   OF    HISTORIC    GREECE,    OR   HELLAS.  47 

B.   STUDY  ON  HISTOKIO  GREECE,  OR  HELLAS,  776-500. 

I.  General  Hellenic  Development. 
II.  Studies  of  Special  States. 

1.  The  Constitution  and  Laws  of  Sparta. 

2.  The  Development  of  the  Athenian  Constitution. 

Principal  contemporary  sources  of  history :  Herodotus  ; 
lyric  poets  of  period ;  monuments  and  remains  at  Olympia, 
at  Psestum,  Poseidonia,  Agrigeritum,  and  other  places  in 
Sicily  and  Southern  Italy ;  at  Ephesus,  Assos ;  in  Samos, 
and  other  islands  of  the  JEgeean. 

Other  principal  original  sources :  Thucydides,  Plutarch, 
Aristotle,  Xenophon. 

Chief  modern  authorities  :  Grote,  Curtius. 

Note  on  the  Map.  —  In  Illyria  were  to  be  found  cattle  and  slaves, 
bitumen,  timber,  and  silver ;  in  exchange  for  these,  the  Greeks  gave 
the  Illyrians  salt  and  salt-fish,  oil  and  wine;  while  to  the  Illyrian 
chiefs  they  gave  the  finely  woven  wool  of  Miletus,  the  famous  pottery 
of  Corcyra,  or  wrought  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver,  whose  material 
had  come,  perhaps,  from  the  rich  mines  of  Thrace.  The  lands  about 
Cyrene  and  about  the  Italian  and  Sicilian  towns,  as  well  as  the  whole 
of  Asia  Minor,  were  rich  in  cattle  and  wheat,  in  wine  and  oil.  From 
Athens  went  figs  and  olives,  pottery  and  silver ;  from  Chalcis,  famous 
swords  of  bronze,  wrought  from  the  copper  and  iron  of  the  neighboring 
mines ;  from  Corinth,  pottery  and  bronze,  and  the  best-built  ships. 

The  colonies  about  the  Black  Sea  were  mostly  the  daughter-cities  of 
Miletus ;  to  those  on  the  southern  shore,  flocked  the  caravans  of  Assyria 
and  India;  to  those  on  the  east,  the  Phasis  washed  down  the  gold  of 
Caucasus ;  to  those  on  the  north  and  west,  came  wheat  and  timber, 
flocks  and  herds,  and  Scythian  gold. 

STUDY  ON  THE  MAP  AND  NOTE. 

What  part  of  each  country  is  occupied  by  the  Greeks?  What 
objects  do  you  fancy  the  Greeks  have  in  founding  colonies?  Why 
should  they  choose  the  locations  in  which  we  find  them  ?  Which  of 
the  occupations  of  Homeric  Greece  seem  to  have  become  predominant, 
judging  from  the  map?  What  occupations  support  this  one ?  Which 
of  the  Greek  races  lead  in  this  occupation?  What  effect  has  this 
occupation  on  the  unity  of  Greek  territory  ?  Why  ? 


48  STUDIES   Itf   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

What  waters  are  familiar  to  the  Greeks?  Name  four  of  their 
colonies  that  seem  peculiarly  important  to  you  by  their  position. 
Which  of  them  are  placed  where  important  modern  cities  now  stand? 
Which  one  would  you  choose  as  the  most  important  of  all,  and  why? 
Why  are  so  many  placed  at  the  mouths  of  rivers? 

Make  a  list  of  the  occupations  and  trades  evidently  known  to  the 
Greeks  at  this  time.  What  occupations  seem  to  be  most  prevalent 
among  the  people  living  near  the  Greek  colonies,  and  what  do  you 
judge  their  state  of  civilization  to  have  been  ?  What  effect  will  the 
colonies  have  upon  these  people  ? 

B.  I.  Study  of  General  Hellenic  Development,  776-490  B.C 

1.    CLASSES    OF    PEOPLE    FOUND    IN    GREECE. 

a.  in  Laconia.  —  Spartans,  descendants  of  the  Dorians 
who  conquered    Peloponnesus;  they  hold  the  best  land, 
govern,   determine    peace   and   war,   lead   in   battle   and 
share   its   spoils.      They   are   supported   by  the    produce 
of  their  own  land,  which  is  worked  for  them  by  Helots, 
or  serfs ;  and  the  only  occupation  allowed  them  is  that 
of  war. 

Periceci,  descendants  of  the  original  inhabitants  of 
Laconia.  They  serve  the  Spartans  in  war,  but  are  other- 
wise free,  and  engage  in  all  sorts  of  occupations. 

Helots ;  these  are  serfs  whose  duty  it  is  to  till  the  land 
owned  by  the  Spartan  state. 

b.  In   Attica.  —  lonians,   descended   from    Ionian    con- 
querors of  Athens;  position  in  Attica  similar  to  that  of 
Spartans  in  Laconia,  but  allowed  to  engage  in  various 
occupations. 

Metics,  the  free  non-Ionian  inhabitants  of  Attica,  pro- 
tected by  its  laws  but  having  no  share  in  its  government. 

Slaves,  the  personal  and  private  property  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Attica;  that  is,  belonging  to  individuals,  for  whom 
they  perform  all  sorts  of  service  and  labor. 

Similar  classes,  with  local  differences,  are  found  in  all 
the  Greek  states.  In  each  state  the  ruling  class  believes 


STUDY    OF    HISTORIC    GREECE,    OR    HELLAS.  49 

itself  descended  from  some  common  ancestor  of  divine  or 
heroic  birth,  whom  they  honor  with  games,  festivals,  and 
sacrifices.  Thus,  all  the  Dorians  honor  Heracles,  and  all 
the  lonians,  Ion,  the  son  of  Apollo;  each  tribe  of  lonians 
or  Dorians  has,  moreover,  its  own  special  ancestor,  whom 
all  its  members  may  worship  in  common. 

2.    LIST    OF   LEADING    EVENTS    OF   THE    PERIOD. 

The  Olympic  Era.  —  The  Olympic  games  were  I — 

celebrated  in  honor  of   Olympian   Zeus,  at   his  | * 

temple  at  Olympia,  in  Elis.  They  consisted  in  contests  in 
running,  leaping,  throwing  the  disk,  boxing,  and  wrestling, 
and  afterward,  chariot  racing  became  an  important  feature. 
The  prize  of  victory  was  simply  a  wreath  of  the  wild  olive. 
Sparta  arranged  with  Elis  the  laws  for  the  games,  to  which 
only  Greeks  were  admitted.  Statues  were  erected  to  the 
victors,  of  which  the  historian  Pausanias,  visiting  Olympia 
in  the  second  century  B.C.,  mentions  200  as  noteworthy 
from  a  much  larger  number.  During  the  time  of  the 
games,  truce  was  proclaimed  in  all  the  states  whose  citi- 
zens were  engaged  at  Olympia.  In  776,  the  records  of 
victors  in  these  games  began  to  be  kept,  and  from  this 
year  the  Greeks  reckoned  time  by  Olympiads,  or  periods 
of  four  years  each ;  for  instance,  an  event  occurring  by  our 
chronology  in  770"  B.C.  would  be  dated  by  them  as  belong- 
ing to  the  second  Olympiad. 

The  Spartans  conquer  Messenia  whose  inhabi- 
tants either  emigrate  or  become  Spartan  Helots. 
Those  emigrating  to  Sicily  found  Messana.  The 
Spartans  also  conquer  a  mountain  frontier  for  themselves 
from  Arcadia;  Syracuse,  Tarentum,  Massalia,  Corcyra, 
Gyrene,  and  most  of  the  other  Greek  colonies,  are  founded 
during  this  period.  Egypt  is  opened  to  Greek  merchants, 
who  also  find  their  way  to  Spain,  and  bring  thence  an 


50  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

enormous  amount  of  metal.  In  gratitude  for  this  dis- 
covery, they  dedicate  to  the  Samian  Juno  a  large  bronze 
vase,  richly  ornamented  and  representing  a  tenth  of  their 
gains.  In  Megara,  a  man  said  to  have  been  a  cook  over- 
throws the  government  of  nobles,  and  he  and  his  descend- 
ants rule  the  state  for  about  a  hundred  years.  In  Corinth, 
also,  the  government  of  the  few  or  of  the  nobles  (Oli- 
garchy) is  overthrown  by  the  leaders  of  the  people, 
Cypselus  and  his  son  Periander,  who  themselves  succes- 
sively hold  the  chief  power.  By  these  men  a  gilt  colossal 
statue  of  Zeus  is  dedicated  to  the  god  at  Olympia,  and 
a  large  chest  of  cedar-wood,  overlaid  with  carved  gold  and 
ivory,  is  offered  to  Hera.  In  other  Greek  states,  also,  the 
oligarchies  are  overthrown  by  popular  leaders  or  power- 
ful men,  who  become  rulers  under  the  title  of  "  Tyrant " 
or  "  despot."  In  several  cases  these  "  Tyrants "  are 
put  down  by  the  help  of  Sparta,  who  always  opposes 
them. 

For  Athens,  see  B.  II.  2. 

The  first  sacred  war  occurs,  caused  as  fol- 
lows: the  pilgrims  to  Delphi  are  annoyed  and 
heavily  taxed  by  the  neighboring  city  Cirrha; 
and  at  last,  on  the  motion  of  the  Athenian  Solon,  the 
states  of  the  Delphic  Amphictyony  join  forces  and 
destroy  Cirrha,  and,  dedicating  the  land  on  which  it 
stood  to  Apollo,  there  hold  the  Pythian  games ;  these 
games  are  at  first  simple  contests  in  music  and  poetry, 
but  afterwards  races  and  athletic  sports  are  added. 

The  Nemean  games  are  established  in  honor  of 
Zeus,  and  the  Isthmean  in  honor  of  Poseidon. 
Sparta  gains  part  of  the  Argive  territory.  Cro3sus, 


king  of  Lydia,  asks  for  aid  from  Greece,  addressing  him- 
self to  the  Spartans. 


STUDY   OF    HISTORIC    GREECE,    OR    HELLAS.  51 

3.    LIST    OF    FAMOUS    NAMES    OF    THE    PERIOD. 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

I* 
J* 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Alcaeus. 

Lesbos  :  citi- 

7th 

Lyric  poet  :  that  is,  wrote  short  poems 

zen. 

descriptive  of  feelings,  passions,  mo- 

mentary impressions;    many  poems 

on   love,    on    music,    on    particular 

events  and  persons  ;    invented  new 

poetic  measures. 

Alcman. 

Sardis  :  said  to 

7th 

Lyric  poet:  made  new  arrangements 

have  been  a 

of  music. 

slave. 

Anaximander. 

Miletus. 

6th 

Made    the  first  map,  first  globe  and 

sun-dial  ;     geographer,     astronomer, 

geometrician  ;  taught  that  the  world 

arose  from  a  chaotic  mixture  of  mat- 

ter; philosopher. 

Archilochus. 

Paros  :  poor  ; 

7th 

Lyric  poet,  writing  also  on  war;    in- 

son of  slave- 

vented  new  poetic  forms. 

mother. 

Arion. 

Lesbos:  trav- 

7th 

Improvised  lyric  songs  and  poems  at 

elling  harper. 

the   festivals  and   at   courts;  much 

patronized  by  Periander,  the  tyrant 

of  Corinth. 

Corinna. 

Boeotian. 

6th 

Lyric  poetess  :  teacher  of  Pindar,  from 

whom  she  took  the  prize  at  one  of 

the  sacred  festivals  of  Thebes. 

Cypselus. 

Tyrant  of 

7th 

See  2. 

Corinth. 

Hecatasus. 

Citizen  of 

6th 

Geographer  ;  philosopher. 

Miletus. 

Heraclitus. 

Citizen  of 

6th 

Taught   that   a  fiery   ether   was    the 

Ephesus. 

source  and  original  material  of  the 

universe  ;  philosopher. 

Hesiod. 

Boeotia('?): 

8th 

Poet  :  writing  on  the  gods,  on  the  his- 

citizen. 

tory  of  creation,  and  the  first  races 

of  man  ;  also,  didactic  poems,  giving 

directions  for  agriculture. 

Milo. 

Crotona,  in 

6th 

Athlete:  six  times  crowned  victor  at 

Italy  :  citizen 

Olympia,  and  six  times  in  the  Pyth- 

and general. 

ian  games,  for  skill  in  wrestling. 

STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Naims. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

I* 

§03 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Phidon. 

Tyrant  of 

8th 

Adopted     the    Asiatic    standards     of 

Argos. 

weight,  measures,    and   coin,  which 

were  introduced  into  Peloponnesus, 

and  later  into  northern  Hellas. 

Periander. 

Tyrant  of 

7th 

See  2. 

Corinth. 

Pythagoras. 

Samos  :  taught 

6th 

Traveller,  geometrician:    taught  that 

in  Magna 

the  universe  is  created  after  an  ex- 

Graecia; son 

act  harmonious  order,  and  that  the 

of  a  rich  mer- 

end  of   human   life  is  virtue  ;   phi- 

chant; citizen. 

losopher. 

Sappho. 

Lesbos. 

6th 

Poetess:    invented  new   poetic  meas- 

ures ;     taught     poetry    and     music 

among  the  women  of  Asia  Minor. 

Solon. 

Athenian  citi- 

6th 

Lawgiver  and  poet  (see  p.  63). 

zen  of  noble 

birth. 

Stesichorus. 

Sicily. 

6th 

Lyric  poet  :  made  new  arrangements 

of  verse. 

Terpander. 

Lesbos. 

7th 

Invented  a  better  harp  on  which  to 

accompany    the.  Homeric     hymns  ; 

gained  the  prize  at  a  great  Lacedae- 

monian festival. 

Thales. 

Citizen  of 

6th 

Astronomer,    physiologist,    geometri- 

Miletus. 

cian  :  taught  that  the  original  element 

of  the  universe  is  water,    and  that 

the  universe  is  animated  by  a  living 

soul  ;  philosopher. 

Thespis. 

Megara. 

6th 

First   dramatic   poet:   using  for   ma- 

terial the  stories  of  Greek  mythology. 

Tyrtaeus. 

Attica  ;  lame 

7th 

War  songs  ;  new  arrangement  of  music  ; 

schoolmaster. 

poet. 

Xenophanes. 

Lydia  (Ionian 

6th 

Poet,   writing  on  philosophy  ;    taught 

Greek). 

that  there   is   one  God,  "neither  in 

body  like   unto  mortals,  neither   in 

mind";    attacked  the   old   religious 

myths. 

STUDY   OF   HISTORIC   GREECE,   OR   HELLAS.  53 

Other  famous  works  of  this  period:  The  temple  of 
Artemis  (Diana)  at  Ephesus ;  of  Hera,  at  Samos ;  of  Posei- 
don, at  Poseidonia  (Paestum)  in  Italy ;  three  great  temples 
at  Agrigentmn  in  Sicily  ;  an  artificial  harbor  at  Corinth ;  the 
discovery  of  the  casting  of  bronze  in  Samos,  and  of  welding 
iron  in  Chios ;  at  the  latter  place  was  made  a  famous  iron 
stand  for  a  silver  censer  that  the  king  of  Lydia  sent  to  Delphi. 

STUDY  ON  I,  2,  AND  3. 

What  two  bonds  ef  union  existed  among  the  Dorians  ?  lonians  ? 
How  far  was  the  position  of  Periceci  or  Metics  oppressive?  In  what 
regard  was  it  favorable  ?  Differences  between  Helots  and  slaves. 

Which  was  the  leading  Greek  state  in  this  period?  Name  three 
facts  which  prove  it.  What  were  the  great  centres  of  Greek  life  in 
general  ?  What  important  common  interests  had  the  Greeks  ?  What 
institutions  and  what  event  prove  this?  If  you  read  that  something 
occurred  in  the  15th  Olympiad,  what  date  will  you  assign  it  in  our  own 
chronology?  With  what  class  of  people  does  the  Tyrant  seem  to  have 
been  associated,  or  to  have  represented?  What  characterized  the 
Greek  worship  ?  What  influence  would  such  a  worship  have  on  (a) 
physique,  (&)  intellect,  (c)  art?  What  proofs  have  we  from  2  and 
3  that  it  did  have  such  an  influence  in  directions  (&)  and  (c)  ?  Was 
the  simplicity  of  the  Olympic  prize  good  or  bad?  Why? 

Name  all  the  directions  in  which  Greek  activity  turns  itself  during 
this  period.  Of  these,  name  the  two  chief  ones.  What  parts  of  the 
Greek  world  manifest  this  activity?  What  reason  can  you  offer  for 
this?  What  stimulated  poetry  among  the  Greeks?  Art?  What 
arts  ?  What  relation  between  the  Tyrants  and  art  and  civilization  ? 
What  was  evidently  meant  by  philosophy  among  the  Greeks  ? 

What  position  or  station  or  birth  was  necessary  to  acquire  greatness 
among  the  Greeks ?  What  gave  men  greatness?  Compare  with  the 
great  men  and  deeds  of  Egypt  and  Assyria.  What  sort  of  civiliza- 
tion is  evidently  arising  among  the  Greeks  ? 

4.  Extracts  Illustrative  of  Period. 

a.    The  Founding  of  Gyrene.    (Herodotus.) 

As  the  king  of  Thera  was  consulting  the  Delphic  oracle 
about  other  affairs,  the  oracle  advised  him  to  found  a  colony  in 


54  .       STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Libya  [Africa].  Accordingly  men  set  sail  from  Thera  to 
explore,  and  landing  on  Platea,  an  island  near  the  Libyan 
coast,  sent  back  word  that  they  had  taken  possession  of  Libya ; 
"  the  Theraeans  resolved,  therefore,  to  send  one  of  every 
family  "  of  their  own  city  to  the  new  colony.  But  nothing 
turning  out  prosperously,  they  inquired  at  Delphi,  saying, 
"they  had  settled  in  Libya  and  fared  no  better."  But  the 
oracle  replied  that  they  had  not  yet  reached  Libya ;  nor  would 
the  god  "release  them  from  founding  the  colony  until  they 
had  come  to  Libya  itself."  So  seeking  further,  they  founded 
Gyrene,  establishing  there  the  same  religious  rites  and  wor- 
ship they  were  accustomed  to  in  Thera. 

b.   Solon  and  Crwsus.    (Herodotus.) 

When  Solon,  the  Athenian,  visited  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia, 
the  latter  showed  him  all  his  splendid  treasures;  "and  when 
he  had  seen  and  examined  everything  sufficiently,  Croesus 
asked  him  .  .  .  '  Who  is  the  most  happy  man  that  you  have 
seen?'"  Solon  answered,  "  Tellus,  the  Athenian,  because  he 
lived  in  a  well-governed  commonwealth ;  had  sons  who  were 
virtuous  and  good  .  .  .  and  coming  to  the  assistance  of  the 
Athenians  in  a  battle  ...  he  put  the  enemy  to  flight,  and  died 
nobly.  The  Athenians  buried  him  at  the  public  charge  .  .  . 
and  honored  him  greatly."  Croesus  then  asked  for  the  next 
happiest  man  whom  Solon  had  seen,  and  Solon  gave  the  names 
of  two  youths  of  Argos,  because  they  had  a  sufficient  fortune, 
and  had  withal,  such  strength  of  body,  that  they  were  both 
alike  victorious  in  the  public  games  ;  and  he  added  this  story, 
that  "  when  the  Argives  were  celebrating  a  feast  of  Hera,  it 
was  necessary  that  the  mother  of  these  youths  be  drawn  to  the 
temple  in  a  chariot ;  and  since  the  oxen  did  not  come  from 
the  field  in  time,  the  young  men  .  .  .  drew  the  car  in  which 
their  mother  sate  "  ;  and  the  men  of  Argos,  who  stood  around, 
praised  the  strength  of  the  youths,  and  "  the  women  blessed 
her  as  the  mother  of  such  sons";  and  after  their  death,  the 
Argives  "  caused  their  statues  to  be  dedicated  at  Delphi." 


STUDY    OF    HISTORIC    GREECE,    OR    HELLAS.  55 

c.  The  Lydian  Kings  and  Delphi. 

Once,  when  Alyattes,  the  father  of  this  Croesus,  was  making 
war,  a  temple  of  Athena  was  accidentally  burned,  and  shortly 
after  he  fell  sick.  "  When  the  disease  continued  a  considerable 
time,  he  sent  messengers  to  Delphi  to  consult  the  oracle.  .  .  . 
The  Pythian,  however,  refused  to  give  any  answer  .  .  .  until 
the  temple  of  Athena  was  rebuilt."  This  then  Alyattes  imme- 
diately attended  to,  and  shortly  after  he  recovered,  and  sent 
to  Delphi  a  large  silver  bowl  inlaid  with  iron. 

The  very  first  of  the  Lydian  kings  had  been  confirmed  in  his 
kingdom  by  the  Delphic  oracle,  to  which  he  sent  a  great  quan- 
tity of  gold  and  silver,  notably,  six  golden  bowls.  Croesus 
himself,  to  show  his  esteem  for  the  oracle,  had  sent  thither  the 
figure  of  a  lion  in  fine  gold/bowls  of  gold  and  silver  of  "  no 
common  work,"  fine-wrought  vases,  the  statue  of  a  woman, 
and  the  necklaces  and  girdles  of  his  wife. 

d.  The  Marriage  of  Clisthenes'  Daughter. 

Clisthenes,  the  tyrant  of  Sicyon,  had  a  daughter  whom  he 
"  resolved  to  give  in  marriage  to  ...  the  most  accomplished  of 
all  the  Greeks.  When,  therefore,  the  Olympian  games  were 
being  celebrated,  Clisthenes,  being  victorious  in  them  .  .  . 
made  there  a  proclamation,"  inviting  to  Sicyon  "  whoever  of 
the  Greeks  deemed  himself  worthy  to  become  the  son-in-law  of 
Clisthenes."  Thereupon  suitors  came  from  Italy  and  the 
Adriatic  shore  ;  from  Peloponnesus  and  Athens,  and  even  from 
Thessaly  and  the  Hellespont.  ' :  When  the  day  appointed  for 
the  .  .  .  marriage  arrived  .  .  .  Clisthenes,  having  sacrificed  a 
hundred  oxen,  entertained  the  suitors  .  .  .  and  when  they  had 
concluded  the  feast,  they  had  a  contest  in  music  and  conversa- 
tion, in  order  to  show  their  powers."  One  of  the  Athenians 
now  "ordered  the  flute-player  to  play  a  dance;  and  when  the 
flute-player  obeyed,  he  began  to  dance  .  .  .  Laconian  figures  .  .  . 
and  then  Attic  ones  ;  and  in  the  third  place,  having  leant  his 
head  on  the  table,  he  gesticulated  with  his  legs."  Then  Clis- 
theues,  "no  longer  able  to  restrain  himself,  said.  .  .  'You 


56  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

have  danced  away  your  marriage,'"  and  chose  as  his  son-in-law 
the  Athenian  Megacles.  The  child  of  this  marriage  was 
Clisthenes,  the  Athenian  law-giver. 

STUDY    ON    4. 

What  were  the  two  bonds  of  union  between  the  mother-city  of  Thera 
and  the  colony  of  Cyrene  ?  Where  have  we  found  these  bonds  of 
union  before  ?  What  sort  of  power  and  knowledge  displayed  by  the 
Delphic  oracle?  What  men  were  most  admired  among  the  Greeks 
(their  ideals)?  What  influence  had  the  Delphic  oracle  on  art  through 
its  connection  with  Lydia?  Why  did  Clisthenes  choose  the  Olympic 
games  as  the  place  for  his  proclamation?  What  facts  justified  his 
choice?  What  does  that  story  tell  us  of  Greek  amusements?  Of 
Greek  refinement? 

In  General.  —  What  common  bond  of  union  or  what  common 
interest  have  all  the  Greeks?  What  bonds  of  union  in  their  various 
units, —  colonies,  tribes,  amphictyonies,  social  classes?  What  do 
the  facts  of  2,  3,  and  4,  so  far  as  given,  indicate  of  the  position  of 
woman  ?  Of  individual  liberty  ?  Of  the  Greek  ideal  ?  Of  the  leading 
Greek  occupation  and  source  of  Greek  wealth  ?  How  far  does  each  of 
these  facts  find  some  explanation  in  the  Heroic  Age?  It  is  said  that 
Greece  was  composed  of  a  multitude  of  little  independent  states ;  what 
reason  have  you  for  thinking  so  from  the. facts  of  this  period? 

II.    1.  The   Constitution  and  Laws  of  Sparta. 

The  constitution  and  laws  of  Sparta  were  by  antiquity 
credited  to  the  Spartan  Lycurgus,  a  man  of  royal  blood 
who  was  said  to  have  studied  the  laws  of  Crete  as  a 
model  for  those  of  Sparta,  and  whose  introduction  of 
these  laws  was  sanctioned  by  the  Delphic  oracle  (see 
p.  35).  The  following  table  represents  the  various  parts 
of  the  state,  and  their  relative  duties,  according  to  this 
constitution :  — 


STUDY   OF    HiSTOKIC    GREECE,    OR    HELLAS. 


57 


I 

p< 

1  § 

2 

2* 

£ 

o   a 

^3     fl 

• 

o 

"t^ 

£   o 

^     § 

§ 

O     06 

g 

~     — 

§ 

Js 

a  1 

o   2 

<*H       O 

S  1 

£ 

% 

*-<    "* 

0 

S     ^ 

2 

CU 

1  i 

*   « 

'S   £ 

1 

1 

1    * 

^»     O 

0 

i 

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OS 

g 

i  § 

o!     d 

£   « 

I 

i 

£    .. 
o 

g  1 

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s 

^ 

^ 

O       qj 

$       S-i 

G    o3 

§ 

~     t2 

S      0 

^= 

•w 

£ 

i 

03     •£« 

5  ^ 

N    5 

rt 

o3 

w  J 

G     ^ 

B 

^ 

M       S> 

oT 

H    ID 

2 

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si 

8    ^ 

\ 

o> 

J 

.s 

2 
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11 

!l 

si 

c«    o 

1 

1 

Furnish* 
other 

1    1 

1 

I 

i 

it 

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1 

~ 

3* 

11 

0 

c 

o 

t-     0 

'N 

t 

S'-TS 

M 

1 

'3 

i 

S    ^ 

w    o 

1  :§ 
*•  ? 

2c" 

0 

.s 

"s 

S| 

_o 

"i 

*Q 

s  ^ 

o    o< 

ft 

o 

ll 

ll 

'T 
2 

il 

Accepts 
measu 

oa 

0 

.2 

•S  "e" 

S  2 

O) 

S  | 

G     >> 

>? 

'I  | 

^C 
o>    c; 

'5 

-;        > 

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|     | 

G 

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^ 

9 

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3 

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X 

£ 

^2    c 

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c 

•f 

o 

§2       ^ 

*o  ** 

^ 

*"* 

01    o 

s  s 

.^H 

^ 

S 

&l    ^ 

S 

'e 

^     rrt 

tj 

_>. 

®    o 

—     s 

rt 

s 

1  '1 

—  ra 

.s 

1 

1  • 

w   'O 

is  a 

1 

1° 

1  § 

1 

5 

% 

Is 

0,    0 

c    w 

Parts  of  the  State  in 

1 

^ 

^3  "o 

ll 

Ephors  :  Five,  chosen 
annually  from  whole 

II 
fl 

Q 

^ 

tl 

.-3    *0 

the  poorer  ones. 

Senate  :  Twenty-eight 

y 

02  T 

I| 
*l 

a3    co" 

2   § 
'a!  +j 

4| 

5   * 

ll 

li 

11 

u  ^ 

body  of  Spartan  (Do- 
rian) citizens,  about 

nine  thousand  in 

number;  no 
Periosci  admitted  ; 

e 

-0 

«j 

"« 

58  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

The  so-called  institutions  of  Lycurgus,  or  laws  of 
Sparta,  appear  in  the  following  account,  adapted  from 
Plutarch. 

According  to  the  legend,  Lycurgus,  on  going  to  Delphi, 
obtained  the  promise  that  the  laws  that  he  should  make 
would  be  the  best  in.  the  world:  returning  to  Sparta, 
he  so  arranged  matters  as  to  give  a  piece  of  land  in  heredi- 
tary possession  to  every  Spartan  family.  "  Each  lot  was 
capable  of  producing  .  .  .  enough  for  health.  .  .  .  He  also 
introduced  .  .  .  public  tables,  where  all  were  to  eat  in 
common  of  the  same  meat,  and  such  kinds  as  were  ap- 
pointed by  law."  Their  food  was  bread,  cheese,  figs,  and 
wine,  with  occasional  flesh.  The  women,  the  men  over 
sixty,  the  children  under  seven,  ate  at  home,  and  on  rare 
occasions  the  citizens  were  allowed  to  join  them,  but  not 
even  the  kings  found  it  easy  to  gain  this  permission. 
After  dinner  "  they  went  home  without  lights  .  .  .  that 
they  might  accustom  themselves  to  march  boldly  in  the 
darkest  night.  .  .  .  Another  law  .  .  .  directed  that  the  ceil- 
ings of  houses  should  be  wrought  with  no  tool  but  the  axe, 
and  the  doors  with  nothing  but  the  saw. ...  He  ordered 
the  virgins  to  exercise  themselves  in  running,  wrestling, 
and  throwing  quoits  and  darts,"  that  their  children  might 
be  strong  and  vigorous. 

Every  child  must  be  "  examined  at  birth  by  the  most 
ancient  men  of  the  tribe.  ...  If  it  were  strong  and  well- 
proportioned,  they  gave  orders  for  its  education  ;  .  .  .  but 
if  it  were  weakly  and  deformed,  they  ordered  it  to  be 
thrown  .  .  .  into  a  deep  cavern.  .  .  .  The  nurses  accustomed 
the  children  to  any  sort  of  food,  to  have  no  terrors  in  the 
dark,  nor  to  be  afraid  of  being  alone.  ...  As  soon  as  they 
were  seven  years  old,  Lycurgus  ordered  them  to  be  en- 
rolled in  companies  .  .  .  where  they  had  their  exercises 
and  recreations  in  common."  These  exercises  consisted 


STUDY   OF   HISTORIC   GREECE,   OB   HELLAS.  59 

in  military  and  gymnastic  drill,  in  trials  of  strength  and  in 
mock-battles.  "  They  slept  in  companies,  in  beds  made 
...  of  reeds  which  they  gathered  with  their  own  hands.  .  .  . 
The  old  men  were  present  at  their  diversions  ...  to  observe, 
instruct,  and  chastise." 

From  childhood  they  were  accustomed  to  hear  all 
the  discourses  of  their  elders  upon  the  characters  and 
affairs  of  their  countrymen.  "If  one  of  them  were 
asked,  '  Who  is  a  good  citizen,  or  an  infamous  one  ? ' 
and  hesitated  in  his  answer,  he  was  considered  a  boy 
of  slow  mind,  and  of  a  sort  that  would  not  aspire  to 
honor.  The  answer  was  likewise  to  have  a  reason 
assigned  for  it." 

This  manner  of  life  was  followed  by  the  Spartan  citizens 
till  old  age.  Nor  was  their  life  without  its  pleasures; 
when  not  engaged  in  war  or  drill,  they  were  hunting, 
dancing,  or  conversing.  Such  were  the  institutions  of 
Lycurgus,  who  was  afterwards  worshipped  as  a  god  among 
the  Spartans. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  stories  told  of  Spartans : 
A  Spartan  boy,  having  stolen  a  young  fox,  and  concealed 
him  under  his  garment,  allowed  the  creature  to  tear  out 
his  vitals  with  his  teeth  and  claws,  rather  than  suffer 
detection.  As  to  the  question  whether  they  should  enclose 
Sparta  with  walls,  it  was  answered,  "  That  city  is  well 
fortified  which  has  a  wall  of  men  instead  of  brick." 
Xeuxis,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  Greek  painters,  wishing 
to  make  the  most  beautiful  picture  of  Venus,  sought  for 
his  models  among  the  Spartan  virgins.  In  one  of  the 
plays  of  Aristophanes,  an  Athenian  lady  thus  addresses 
Lampito,  a  Lacedsemonian  wife,  "  O  dearest  Spartan,  O 
Lampito,  welcome  !  How  beautiful  you  look,  sweetest  one, 
how  fresh  your  complexion !  You  could  throttle  an  ox." 
"  Yes,"  says  she,  "  I  think  I  could,"  A  Spartan  mother 


60  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

sent  her  five  sons  to  war,  and,  knowing  that  a  battle  had 
taken  place,  she  waited  for  news  on  the  outside  of  the  city. 
Some  one  came  up  to  her  and  told  her  that  all  her  sons  had 
perished.  "  You  vile  slave,"  said  she,  "  that  is  not  what  I 
wanted  to  know ;  I  want  to  know  how  fares  my  country." 
"  Victorious,"  said  he.  "  Willingly  then,"  said  she,  "  do 
I  hear  of  the  death  of  my  sons."  When  Croasus  was  ad- 
vised by  the  oracle  to  obtain  a  Greek  ally  in  an  approach- 
ing war,  he  sent  for  aid  to  Sparta ;  and  on  one  occasion, 
when  Athens  and  Megara  had  been  long  at  war,  they 
left  the  decision  of  their  quarrel  to  a  commission  from 
Sparta. 

STUDY  ON   II.  1. 

Who  compose  the  Spartan  state?  What  marks  a  man  as  a 
Spartan?  In  other  words,  what  bonds  of  union  exist  among  the 
Spartans?  Who  holds  the  chief  power  in  the  Spartan  state?  What 
checks  upon  this  power  ?  What  resemblances  do  you  find  between  the 
Spartan  and  the  Homeric  constitution?  What  difference?  What 
part  of  the  state  has  lost  power  since  Homeric  times?  Whom  does 
the  chief  power  in  this  government  represent?  What  takes  the 
place  nowadays  of  the  general  assembly  in  its  function  of  hearing 
news,  laws,  etc.  ?  What  name  can  you  give  to  this  sort  of  govern- 
ment,—  (a)  considering  Spartans  alone?  (6)  considering  all  the 
inhabitants  of  Laconia? 

What  gave  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  their  power  over  the  people, 
and  what  enabled  them  to  keep  that  power?  What  seems  to  have 
been  the  great  aim  of  these  institutions  ?  How  did  each  provision 
made  help  to  attain  that  aim?  What  means  had  they  for  training  the 
intellect?  What  elements  of  character  were  evidently  sought  for? 
What  sentiment  was  cherished  by  the  common  treatment  of  all? 
What  effect  would  such  institutions  have  upon  the  family  life  ?  Upon 
the  physique?  Upon  the  manners?  What  adjectives  would  you  apply 
to  the  Spartan  life  ?  What  do  you  infer  as  to  the  position  of  women 
in  such  a  state?  How  would  labor  be  regarded  in  such  a  state? 
Why?  Did  the  Spartan  laws  look  to  the  good  of  the  individual,  the 
family,  or  the  state  ?  What  does  each  story  told  of  Sparta  show  as  to 
the  influence  of  her  discipline  ?  What  was  her  position  among  Greek 
states?  -What  was  evidently  her  ideal? 


STUDY   OF   HISTORIC   GKEECE,   OR   HELLAS.  61 

II.  2.  The  Development  of  the  Athenian  Constitution. 

a.    Athens  before  Solon.     776-594  B.C. 

In  Athens,  before  Solon,  every  family  had  its  own  tomb, 
generally  near  the  house  ;  here  and  at  the  family  hearth 
they  worshipped  together  their  common  ancestor.  The 
following  is  a  prayer  offered  by  a  daughter  at  the  tomb  of 
her  father :  "  Take  pity  on  me  and  on  my  brother  Orestes  ; 
make  him  return  to  this  country ;  hear  my  prayer,  O  my 
father  ;  grant  my  wishes,  receiving  my  offerings."  If  sons 
were  adopted,  or  daughters  married  into  a  family,  this  was 
accomplished  by  teaching  them  how  to  share  in  its  wor- 
ship, which  thus  became  their  own.  A  union  of  such  fam- 
ilies formed  a  gens  or  clan,  whose  members  were  recog- 
nized "  by  the  fact  that  they  performed  sacrifices  in 
common."  A  union  of  clans  formed  a  brotherhood,  wor- 
shipping some  common  ancestor  or  hero.  Of  such  brother- 
hoods were  the  four  Ionic  tribes  composed ;  who,  claiming 
a  common  descent  from  Ion,  the  son  of  Apollo,  and  wor- 
shipping in  common  at  the  shrine  of  Athena  on  the  Acrop- 
olis J  of  Athens,  composed  the  early  city  of  Athens ;  only 
these  tribesmen  were  her  citizens.  Even  among  the 
tribesmen  a  distinction  had  risen  between  the  "  well-born  " 
or  the  Eupatrids,  as  they  were  called,  and  the  "  Many" 
the  former  claiming  to  be  of  purer  and  nobler  Ionic  blood 
than  the  latter. 

The  earliest  political  constitution  of  Athens  was  that  of 
the  Heroic  age ;  just  before  the  time  of  Solon,  as  far  as 
known,  it  appears  as  follows  :  — 

1  The  hill-fortress  and  shrine  around  which  Athens  was  built. 


62 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTOKY. 


Parts  of  the  State  in 

War. 

Law. 

Religion. 

Chief-archon, 

Judges  in  all  family 

a  Eupatrid. 

and  clan  disputes. 

King-archon, 

Judges  in  religious 

Offers  sacrifices 

a  Eupatrid. 

matters. 

and  decides  on 

religious  matters  . 

War-archon, 

Commands  in 

Judges  between  citi- 

a Eupatrid. 

war. 

zens  and  strangers. 

Other  archons,1 

Assist  the  first 

Assist  the  first 

Eupatrids. 

three. 

three. 

Areopagus,2  sitting 

Decides,  proclaims, 

for  life,  and 

and  judges  in  re- 

composed of  ex- 

gard  to  all  the  laws 

archons. 

of  the  state;  pre- 

serves   such    rec- 

ords as  are  made 

of  them. 

General  Assembly 

Composes 

Probably  meets 

Worships  together 

of  Ionic  tribes- 

army and 

to  hear   the  deci- 

at common 

men. 

navy. 

sions  of  the  Areo- 

shrines of 

pagus  and  archons. 

Athena,  and 

honors  common 

ancestor. 

STUDY  ON  a. 

Our  own  cities  are  made  up  of  "  wards  "  or  districts,  which  may  be 
called  the  units  of  which  the  city  is  composed ;  in  Athens,  what  units 
do  you  find  ?  What  bonds  of  union  in  each  of  these  units  ?  Which 
of  these  bonds  was  fundamental  and  essential?  Which  class  of  peo- 
ple held  the  ruling  power  ?  Which  had  but  little  ?  What  free  men 
in  Attica  had  no  power  ?  What  fact  determined  a  man's  chance  for 
power?  What  resemblances  between  the  constitution  of  Athens  and 
that  of  Homeric  times  ?  What  great  changes  had  taken^»lace  ?  What 
class  had  profited  by  this  change  ?  How  had  this  change  probably 


1  All  the  archons  were  chosen  annually  from,  and    probably  by,  the 
JEupatrids. 

2  In  full,  the  Senate  of  Areopagus  or  of  Mars'  Hill. 


STUDY    OF    HISTORIC    GREECE,    OE    HELLAS.  68 

affected  the  influence  of  the  "  Many  "  ?  If  a  man  were  rich  but  not  a 
Eupatrid,  what  would  be  true  of  his  political  power?  What  name 
will  you  give  to  this  form  of  the  Athenian  government  ?  What  view 
was  evidently  taken  among  the  Athenians  of  the  state  of  the  soul  after 
death? 

b.    The  Legislation  of  /Solon.1    594  B.C.     (Abridged  from  Plu- 
tarch.) 

Solon,  being  himself  of  noblest  Eupatrid  birth,  was 
chosen  archon  for  the  purpose  of  composing  the  difficulties 
of  the  Athenian  state.  "  A  saying  of  his  which  he  had  let 
fall  some  time  before,  that  'equality  causes  no  war,' 
was  then  much  repeated,  and  pleased  both  the  rich  and 
the  poor."  The  first  of  his  public  acts  was  to  free  all 
lands  which  had  been  mortgaged  and  all  citizens  who  had 
been  enslaved  for  debt,  and  to  enact  that  in  future  no 
Athenian  should  pledge  his  own  person  as  security  for  his 
debts,  nor  sell  the  members  of  his  own  family  into  slavery 
in  order  to  meet  his  dues.  In  confirmation  of  this  meas- 
ure, the  people  offered  the  sacrifice  called  "  Seisachtheia," 
or  the  thank-offering  for  freedom. 

In  the  next  place,  Solon  took  an  estimate  of  the  estates 
of  the  citizens.  Those  whose  yearly  income  was  equal  to 
about  700  bushels  of  barley  he  placed  in  the  first  class. 
The  second  consisted  of  those  .  .  .  whose  lands  produced 
between  420  and  700  bushels.  In  the  third  class  came 
those  who  were  worth  from  280  to  420  bushels,  and  in -the 
fourth,  all  those  whose  income  fell  below  this :  thus  the 
Eupatrids  and  the  "  Many  "  often  found  themselves  in  the 
same  class. 

He  next  gave  Athens  the  following  political  constitu- 
tion :  — 

1  This  legislation  affected  none  but  the  Ionian  "  tribesmen  "  of  Attica. 


64 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Parts  of  the  State  in 

War. 

i_ 

Administration. 

Religion. 

Arckons:  elected 

Dutie 

a  and  divisions  of 

[abor  as  bef  or 

J. 

from      Solon's 

first  class. 

Areopagus  :   com- 
posed   of     ex- 
archons. 

Guards  the  con- 
stitution. 

Has  a  gener- 
al oversight 
of  the  state; 

Has  a 

general 
over- 

punishes 
men  of  idle 
and     disso- 

sight of 
relig- 
ion. 

lute  life. 

Senate:  Four 
hundred    loni- 
ans,  elected 
from    the   first 

Prepares     meas- 
ures for  public 
assembly. 

Convokes 
general  as- 
sembly and 
executes  its 

three  classes  of 

decrees. 

Solon. 

General  Assembly 
of    all    four 
classes.      Ec- 
clesia. 

Decides  on 
peace  and 
war,  and 
forms  army 
and  navy. 

Discusses  and 
votes  on  meas- 
ures    proposed 
by  senate  ;  forms 
courts  of  law  for 
judgment  of 
Athenian  citi- 

Elects ar- 
chons  and 
senators. 

zens  ;  judges  ar- 
chons  and  other 

magistrates   on 
their  leaving 
office. 

To  this  constitution  Solon  added  the  following  laws : 
that  any  one,  without  children,  might  will  away  his  prop- 
erty as  he  pleased  ;  that  no  one  should  be  obliged  to  main- 
tain his  father,  if  the  latter  had  not  taught  him  a  trade  ;  that 
trades  should  be  honorable,  and  that  the  Areopagus  should 
examine  into  each  man's  way  of  life  and  should  punish  the 
idle;  that  the  privileges  of  the  city  should  be  forbidden  to 
strangers,  except  such  as  were  forever  exiled  from  their 


STUDY    OF    HISTORIC   GREECE,    Oil   HELLAS.  65 

own  country,  or  those  who  had  come  to  Attica  with  their 
families  for  the  sake  of  exercising  some  trade. 

He  ordered  also  that  women  should  travel  with  not 
more  than  three  dresses  and  with  a  limited  amount  of  pro- 
vision ;  and  that  in  the  night  they  should  go  only  in  car- 
riages, with  torches  before  them.  There  should  be  no 
mourners  hired  at  funerals,  nor  should  an  ox  be  sacrificed 
on  these  occasions,  nor  more  than  three  garments  buried 
with  the  body. 

Such  were  the  laws  of  Solon  ;  and  they  were  written 
and  placed  in  the  citadel  where  all  could  see  them,  and 
where  they  were  under  the  care  of  the  divinity  of  the  city. 

STUDY  ON  b. 

What  do  you  judge  to  have  been  those  difficulties  at  Athens  which 
Solon  was  chosen  to  "  compose  "  ?  Why  should  the  rich  have  been 
pleased  with  his  saying  about  equality ?  Why  the  poor?  What  had 
been  one  great  cause  of  slavery?  What  did  Solon  make  the  basis  of 
political  power  in  Athens  ? 

How  did  the  ease  of  obtaining  power  under  his  constitution  com- 
pare with  the  former  ease  of  gaining  it  ?  What  new  unit  appeared  in 
the  state  ?  What  was  the  common  bond  or  mark  of  the  men  in  each 
of  these  units  ? 

In  his  constitution  what  people  lost  political  power,  comparatively 
speaking?  Who  gained  it?  What  part  of  the  state  gave  power? 
What  part  exercised  it  ?  What  class  must  be  favored  by  those  who 
wished  to  exercise  power?  What  name  will  you  give  to  this  new 
form  of  government  at  Athens  ? 

What  would  be  the  effect  of  these  laws  on  trade  and  industry  ? 
Which  laws  of  Solon  would  not  be  endured  among  us  ?  Why  ? 

What  great  difference  do  you  notice  between  the  laws  of  Solon  and 
those  of  Lycurgus?  In  spirit?  In  aim?  In  both  cases,  were  their 
greatest  changes  political  or  social  ? 

c.    The  Tyranny  of  the  Pisistratids.     (Abridged  from  Plutarch 

and  Herodotus.) 

Shortly  after  the  new  constitution  of  Solon  was  given 
to  Athens,  three  contending  parties  appeared  in  the  state ; 


66 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


the  party  of  the  Shgre,  the  party  of  the  Plain,  and  the 
"  Mountaineers,"  among  which  last  was  a  multitude  of  poor 
laborers.  The  leader  of  the  Mountaineers  was  Pisistratus, 


I.  The  dwelling  of  the  party  of  the  Shore.  II.  The  dwelling  of 
the  party  of  the  Plain.  III.  The  dwelling  of  the  "  Moun- 
taineers." P  P  P.  Position  of  Persian  fleet  after  message  of 
Themistokles  at  opening  of  the  battle  of  Salamis.  G.  Position 
of  Greek  fleet  at  the  same  time.  X.  Throne  of  Xerxes. 

Peiraeus  =  the  port  and  harbor  of  Athens. 

of  one  of  the  oldest  Eupatrid  families,  related  to  Solon,  and 
in  his  manners  "remarkably  courteous,  affable,  and  liberal. 
He  had  always  two  or  three  slaves  near  him  with  bags  of 


STUDY   OF   HISTORIC   GREECE,   OR,   HELLAS.  67 

silver  coin ;  when  he  saw  any  man  looking  sickly,  or  heard 
that  any  died  insolvent,  he  relieved  the  one,  and  buried 
the  others  at  his  own  expense.  If  he  perceived  people 
melancholy,  he  inquired  the  cause,  and  if  he  found  it  was 
poverty,  he  furnished  them  with  what  might  enable  them 
to  get  bread,  but  not  to  live  idly.  Nay,  he  left  even  his 
gardens  and  orchards  open,  and  the  fruit  free  to  the  citi- 
zens." One  day  Pisistratus  came  into  the  market-place, 
having  intentionally  wounded  himself  and  his  mules,  and 
told  the  people  that  he  had  been  attacked  by  his  enemies. 
"  Upon  this,  the  multitude  loudly  expressed  their  indigna- 
tion .  .  .  and  a  General  Assembly  being  summoned,"  a 
motion  was  carried  that  Pisistratus  have  a  bodyguard  of 
fifty  clubmen ;  nor  did  the  people  "  curiously  inquire " 
into  -  the  number  employed,  and  presently  Pisistratus 
seized  the  citadel,  and  assumed  the  government  of  Athens. 
Herodotus  tells  us  further  that  he  neither  disturbed  the 
magistracies  nor  the  laws ;  but  presently  the  parties  of  the 
Plain  and  of  the  Shore,  uniting,  drove  him  out.  "But 
those  who  expelled  Pisistratus  quarrelled  anew  with 
one  another,"  and  the  leader  of  the  Plain,  having  made 
terms  with  Pisistratus,  on  condition  of  sharing  the  power, 
contrived  with  him  the  following  plan :  They  selected  a 
woman  of  commanding  height  "and  in  other  respects 
handsome.  Having  dressed  this  woman  in  a  complete  suit 
of  armor,  and  placed  her  on  a  chariot,  .  .  .  they  drove  her 
to  the  city,  having  sent  heralds  before,  who  .  .  .  proclaimed 
.  .  .  '  O  Athenians,  receive  with  kind  wishes  Pisistratus, 
whom  Athena  herself  .  .  .  now  conducts  back  to  her  own 
citadel ; '  .  .  .  and  a  report  was  presently  spread  among  the 
people  that  Athena  was  bringing  back  Pisistratus ;  and 
the  people  in  the  city,  believing  this  woman  to  be  the  god- 
dess .  .  .  received  Pisistratus."  Not  long  after,  however, 


68  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTOKY. 

the  parties  of  the  Plain  and  the  Shore  again  combined 
against  his  power;  and  Pisistratus,  hearing  of  it,- with- 
drew from  the  country  for  ten  years,  and  collecting  as 
much  money  as  possible,  hired  mercenary  forces,1  with 
which  he  marched  against  the  Athenians  and  overcame 
them. 

Thus  Pisistratus,  having  for  a  third  time  possessed  him- 
self of  Athens,  secured  his  power  more  firmly,  both  by  the 
aid  of  mercenary  forces  and  by  revenues,  drawn  in  part 
from  the  Athenians  and  in  part  from  the  silver  mines  on 
the  Strymon. 

His  power  being  thus  established,  he  introduced  new 
festivals  to  the  gods  and  improved  the  old;  invited  to 
Athens  the  greatest  poets  of  Hellas;  collected  the  Homeric 
poems ;  gave  the  public  access  to  his  library  of  manu- 
scripts ;  adorned  the  city  with  new  buildings ;  supplied  it 
with  water ;  improved  the  roads  of  Attica ;  improved  the 
culture  of  the  olive;  and  preserved  the  forms  of  the 
Solonian  constitution,  he  himself  being  always  chosen 
the  first  Archon.  At  his  death,  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
sons,  who  ruled  in  the  same  way.  But  the  murder  of  one 
of  them  by  a  conspiracy  of  young  Athenians  caused  the 
other  to  govern  harshly  and  suspiciously,  and  to  form  an 
alliance  with  Darius,  the  king  of  Persia,  in  order  that  he 
might  have  help  to  uphold  his  power  in  Athens. 

About  this  time  the  Delphian  temple  was  burnt,  and 
the  rich  and  powerful  Athenian  family  of  Alcmseonids, 
that  had  led  the  party  of  the  Plain,  and  had  been  in  exile 
during  the  Pisistratid  tyranny,  took  the  contract  for  re- 
building it;  and  "they  constructed  the  temple  in  a  more 
beautiful  manner  than  the  plan  required,  and  .  .  .  built 

1  Men  hired  to  fight  for  others  beside  their  fellow-countrymen. 


STUDY  OF  HISTORIC  GREECE,  OR  HELLAS.      69 

its  front  of  Parian  marble.  Accordingly,  these  men  .  .  . 
prevailed  on  the  oracle,  .  .  .  when  any  Spartans  came  to 
consult  at  Delphi,  ...  to  propose  to  them  to  free  Athens 
from  the  Tyranny.  The  Lacedaemonians,  since  the  same 
warning  was  always  given  them,  sent  ...  an  army  to 
expel  the  Pisistratids,  .  .  .  though  they  were  united  to 
them  by  ties  of  friendship ;  for  they  considered  their  duty 
to  the  god  greater  than  their  duty  to  men.  Thus  the 
Athenians  were  delivered,"  and  Hippias,  the  son  of  Pisis- 
tratus, becoming  an  exile,  fled  to  the  court  of  Darius,  the 
king  of  Persia. 

STUDY  ON  c. 

What  fact  given  on  the  map  shows  that  Athens  was  the  centre  of 
Attica  ?  Name  all  the  means  which  Pisistratus  possessed  or  employed 
for  gaining  power.  Which  of  these  means  had  he  a  perfect  right  to 
employ  ?  Which  were  wrong  ?  What  right  and  what  wrong  means 
did  he  choose?  How  did  the  constitution  of  Solon  help  him?  What 
relation  between  his  tyranny  and  the  spirit  of  that  constitution  ?  What 
elements  of  strength  existed  in  the  party  of  the  mountaineers  ?  Why 
should  the  mountain-men  all  go  together,  and  the  men  of  the  plain  do 
the  same  ?  Why  will  a  party  of  poor  men  be  more  ready  for  revolu- 
tion and  change  than  one  of  rich  men?  What  faults  on  the  part  of 
the  Athenians  allowed  Pisistratus  (a)  to  establish  and  (6)  to  main- 
tain his  tyranny?  What  really  sustained  the  power  of  Pisistratus? 
What  nominally,  and  according  to  the  constitution,  sustained  it? 
What  suspicious  circumstance  appears  in  this  story  concerning  Del- 
phi ?  What  additional  confirmation  of  the  strength  of  Sparta  ?  What 
resemblances  between  this  tyranny  and  those  before  noted?  Of  what 
use  was  this  tyranny  to  Athens? 

d.     The  Legislation  of  Clisthenes.     About  500  B.C. 

The  Pisistratids  having  been  expelled,  Clisthenes,  one 
of  the  Alcmseonid  family,  became  the  foremost  man  in 
Athens,  and  proposed  a  new  constitution,  which  was  ac- 
cepted by  the  people,  and  consented  to  by  the  Delphic  oracle, 


70 


STUDIES   IN    GENERAL,   HISTORY. 


The  Athenian  state  had  hitherto  consisted  simply  of  those 
who  had  been  born  into  the  four  Ionic  tribes ;  now  it  was 
to  consist  of  all  the  free-born  native  inhabitants  of  Attica, 
divided  into  ten  new  tribes  according  to  their  places  of 
residence.  Each  tribe  took  its  name  from  some  native 
hero,  in  whose  honor  it  built  a  chapel,  where  the  new 
tribesmen  worshipped  and  held  their  sacred  feasts  in  com- 
mon. Each  tribe  was  composed  of  denies,  or  parishes; 
the  denies  of  the  same  tribe,  however,  were  not  all  together, 
though  all  the  men  of  the  same 
parish  were  in  the  same  tribe. 
The  accompanying  diagram  will 
explain:  let  the  large  square 
represent  Attica,  and  the  small 
squares  the  denies;  denies  "a," 
we  will  say,  belong  to  the  first 
tribe,  demes  "  b  "  to  the  second, 
"c?"  to  the  third,  etc.  Each 


deme  managed  its  own  local  affairs ;  for  those  of  Attica, 
all  the  demes  met  by  tribes  in  Athens,  where  they  formed 
the  general  Assembly,  or  Ecdesia.  The  following  table 
shows  the  new  constitution. 


Parts  of  the  State  in 


Administration. 


Archons,  chosen  by  lot 
from  three  upper  classes 
of  Solon. 

Strategi :  ten  generals,  one 
from  each  new  tribe,  an- 
nually elected  from  three 
upper  classes  of  Solon. 

Areopagus,  as  before. 

Senate  of  five  hundred ; 
fifty  from  each  new 
tribe,  annually  elected. 


As  before,  but  subordinate  to  nev 
constitution. 


Command  the 
army  in  turn. 


Deliberates  on 
foreign  af- 
fairs. 


As  before. 


Convoke     Ec- 
clesia. 


Convokes  Ec- 
clesia. 


STUDY    OF    HISTORIC    GllEECE,    OR    HELLAS. 


71 


Parts  of  the  State  in 

War. 

Law. 

Administration. 

Ecclesia:     all   adult   free- 

Composes  the 

Adopts  or  re- 

Elects officers 

born  inhabitants  of  At- 

army and 

jects,  after 

and  senators, 

tica. 

navy. 

public  discus- 

adopts new 

sion,  propo- 

citizens into 

sals  of  Senate 

the  Attic 

and  magis- 

state. 

trates  ;  judges 

and  ostra- 

cizes.1 

1  Clisthenes  introduced  the  "  ostracism."  If  any  man  seemed  to  be 
gaining  great  power  among  the  people,  the  Senate  announced  that  the 
Ecclesia  would  shortly  be  called  to  pass  a  vote  of  exile  against  some 
citizen,  no  name  being  announced.  Should  6000  votes  be  cast  against  the 
same  man,  he  must  go  into  exile  for  ten  years.  A  smaller  number  passed 
for  nothing. 

On  the  day  when  the  Ecclesia  met,  from  the  early  morn- 
ing "  the  priests  walked  around  the  Pnyx  [the  meeting- 
place  of  the  Ecclesia]  immolating  victims  and  calling 
down  the  protection  of  the  gods.  .  .  .  An  altar  stood  near 
the  speaker's  stand.  When  all  were  seated,  a  priest  pro- 
claimed :  '  Keep  silence,  religious  silence ;  pray  the  gods 
and  goddesses  that  all  may  pass  most  prosperously  in  the 
Assembly.'  Then  the  people  .  .  .  replied  :  *  We  invoke 
the  gods,  that  they  may  protect  the  city.' " 

The  public  income  was  paid  over  to  "  ten  treasurers  of 
the  goddess  Athena,"  one  chosen  from  each  tribe  ;  and  the 
treasury  was  the  inner  chamber  of  the  Parthenon,  the 
temple  on  the  Acropolis. 

STUDY  ON  d. 

What  is  the  unit  in  the  constitution  of  Clisthenes  ?  What  places 
a  man  in  this  new  unit  ?  What  interests  and  duties  have  these  new 
tribesmen  in  common  ?  in  other  words,  what  bonds  of  union  in  this 


72  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

new  unit?  Compare  the  distribution  of  political  power  under  Clis- 
thenes  and  under  former  Athenian  constitutions.  Compare  with  the 
Spartan  constitution  in  this  respect.  What  element  appears  in  Athe- 
nian warfare  not  seen  in  Spartan  ?  Compare  the  three  Athenian  con- 
stitutions in  regard  to  equality ;  justice ;  democracy ;  the  worth  of  the 
individual  man;  size  of  state  entering  into  each.  Illustrate  each 
answer  by  facts.  What  Athenian  experience  may  have  suggested  the 
ostracism  ?  The  separation  of  the  demes  of  the  same  tribe  ?  What 
name  will  you  give  to  this  constitution  of  Clisthenes? 

What  one  thing  appears  as  a  bond  of  union  in  all  the  constitutions? 
What  political  term  derived  from  deme  ? 


C.    STUDY   ON  PEESIAN  ¥AES,  490-479  B.C. 

I.   First  Persian  War :  Darius  against  the  Greeks,  490  B.C. 
II.    Interval  of  Preparation,  490-480  B.C. 
III.    Second  Persian  War :  Xerxes  against  the  Greeks,  480-479  B.C. 

Chief  contemporary  authority :  Herodotus.  Other  chief 
original  authority  :  Plutarch's  Lives  of  Themistocles  and 
Aristides.  Chief  modern  authorities:  Grote,  Curtius. 

Note  on  the  Map.  —  Each  of  the  divisions  of  the  Persian  Empire 
was  called  a  satrapy,  and  was  ruled  by  a  satrap  who  was  appointed 
by  the  king  and  who  could  manage  the  satrapy  as  he  pleased,  if  he 
only  kept  the  peace  and  sent  the  king  the  soldiers  and  the  tribute 
money  due.  In  the  time  of  Clisthenes,  Darius  was  king  of  the 
Persian  Empire  and  received  from  it  more  than  $20,000,000  of  tribute 
every  year. 

STUDY  ON   MAP  AND   NOTE. 

Compare  the  Persian  Empire  with  Greece  -and  the  Greek  colonies 
in  regard  to  amount  and  distribution  of  territory.  What  does  the 
distribution  of  territory  indicate  in  regard  to  the  leading  occupation 
in  each  case?  Compare  the  population  of  the  Greek  and  Persian 
territories  in  regard  to  civilization.  What  unity  did  the  Persian 
possessions  lack  which  the  Greek  possessed?  What  unity  did  they 
possess  that  the  Greek  lacked?  To  whom  was  the  Persian  Empire 
valuable?  For  what?  WThat  was  the  special  value  of  Phoenicia? 


STUDY   ON   PERSIAN    WARS.  73 

Of  Egypt?  Of  the  Tigro-Euphrates  valley?  To  whom  were  the 
Greek  territories  valuable  ?  In  case  of  war,  who  would  be  most  inter- 
ested in  it  on  the  Persian  side  ?  On  the  Greek  side  ? 

I.     Account  of  the  First  Persian  War.     (Abridged  from 
Herodotus.) 

During  the  reign  of  Darius,  "some  of  the  opulent  men 
[aristocrats]  were  exiled  from  Naxos  by  the  people  [dem- 
ocrats], and  .  .  .  went  to  Miletus,"  asking  aid;  Gut  the 
Tyrant  of  Miletus  advised  them  to  ask  it  of  Persia.  When 
the  request  came  to  the  ears  of  Darius,  and  he  heard  that 
Naxos  was  "  beautiful  and  fertile  .  .  .  and  in  it  was  much 
wealth  and  many  slaves,"  he  decided  to  give  the  exiles 
aid.  But  this  expedition  sent  against  the  Naxian  demo- 
crats was  unsuccessful,  and  the  Tyrant  of  Miletus,  who 
had  promised  King  Darius  rich  returns  from  it,  feared 
that  now  he  would  lose  his  power,  if  not  his  life.  So 
"  he  established  an  equality  in  Miletus,  in  order  that  the 
Milesians  might  more  readily  join  him  in  revolt."  In 
other  Ionian  cities,  also,  he  expelled  the  Tyrants,  and  estab- 
lished democracies.  Sailing  then  for  Sparta,  he  asked  for 
their  alliance,  using  words  like  these :  "  That  the  children  of 
lonians  should  be  slaves  instead  of  free  is  a  great  disgrace 
and  sorrow."  But  the  Spartans  turning  a  deaf  ear,  he 
sailed  to  Athens,  making  the  same  request.  Now  the 
Athenians  had  already  declared  the  Persians  their  enemies, 
because  the  Persian  ruler  at  Sardis  had  ordered  them 
to  take  Hippias  again  as  Tyrant.  When  the  Milesian 
(Aristagoras),  therefore,  asked  for  help  against  the  Per- 
sian, the  Athenians  voted,  in  public  assembly,  twenty 
ships  for  the  aid  of  the  lonians.  Thus  Darius  became 
hostile  to  the  Athenians,  and,  having  put  down  the  Ionian 
revolt,  resolved  to  conquer  them.  But  first  he  sent 
heralds  to  the  various  Grecian  cities  to  demand  earth  and 
water  as  tokens  of  submission  by  land  and  sea ;  and  the 


74 


STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY 


STUDY    ON   PERSIAN    WAKS.  75 

islanders  and  many  Greeks  of  the  continent  gave  what 
was  asked ;  but  Athens  arid  Sparta  threw  the  heralds,  the 
former  into  a  pit,  the  latter  into  a  well,  and  told  them  to 
take  their  earth  and  water  thence.  So  Darius  sent  against 
them  an  army  and  a  navy;  and  with  them  came  Hippias, 
the  Pisistratid.  He  it  was  who  advised  the  Persians  to 
land  at  Marathon,  where  the  ground  was  good  for  the 
Persian  cavalry.  "  The  Athenians  . .  .  also  sent  their  forces 
to  Marathon;  and  ten  generals  led  them,  of  whom  Miltiades 
was  the  tenth.  .  .  .  But  first,  while  the  generals  were  yet 
in  the  city,  they  despatched  a  herald  to  Sparta.  .  .  .  On 
coming  into  the  presence  of  the  magistrates,  he  said, 
'  Lacedeemonians,  the  Athenians  entreat  you  to  assist 
them,  and  not  to  suffer  .  .  .  [them]  to  fall  into  bondage  to 
barbarians.' "  The  Spartans,  however,  though  willing  to 
help  Athens,  "  were  unwilling  to  violate  their  law ;  for  it 
was  the  ninth  day  of  the  month ;  and  they  said  they  could 
not  march  out "  until  the  full  of  the  moon. 

Meanwhile  the  Persians  had  landed,  and  the  Athenians 
and  their  allies  were  arrayed  against  them  in  a  place 
sacred  to  Hercules ;  but  the  generals  were  divided  about 
giving  battle,  half  counselling  surrender;  but  the  war- 
archon  had  the  casting  vote ;  him,  therefore,  Miltiades 
addressed:  '"If  the  Athenians  succumb  to  the  Medes 
[Persians],  it  has  been  determined  what  they  are  to  suffer 
when  delivered  up  to  Hippias ;  but  if  the  city  survive,  it 
will  become  the  first  of  Grecian  cities.  .  .  .  All  these  things 
.  .  .  depend  on  you.'  .  .  .  Miltiades,  by  these  words,  gained 
over  the  war-archon,  and  ...  it  was  determined  to  engage." 
On  the  motion  of  Aristides,  also  one  of  the  ten  stra- 
tegi,  the  other  generals  resigned  their  right  of  command 
to  Miltiades  alone.  "  The  Athenians  being  drawn  up  in 
battle  array,  and  the  sacrifices  offered  being  pleasing 
to  the  gods,  they  advanced  against  the  barbarians  in 


76  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

double-quick  time."  The  battle  was  long  and  hard-fought, 
but  the  Persians,  although  at  least  100,000  strong,  while 
the,  Athenians  were  but  10,000  men,  were  driven  back  to 
their  ships ;  embarking,  they  wished  "  to  anticipate  the 
Athenians  in  reaching  the  city.  .  .  .  But  the  Athenians  .  .  . 
were  .  .  .  beforehand  "  ;  so  the  barbarians  "  sailed  away  for 
Asia,"  and  the  first  Persian  war  was  ended. 

STUDY  ON   I. 

Who  or  what  decides  on  what  shall  be  done  in  the  Persian  Empire  ? 
What  sort  of  a  government  will  you  name  that  of  Persia?  What  is 
the  aim  of  Persian  conquest?  Prove  it.  Who  or  what  decides  on 
what  shall  be  done  in  the  various  Grecian  states  ?  What  are  the  aims 
of  the  war  on  the  Greek  side?  What  is  the  political  unit  on  the 
Greek  side ;  that  is,  how  much  of  the  Greek  territory  and  population 
act  together  in  the  matters  of  war,  of  peace,  of  alliance  ?  What  is 
the  unit  on  the  Persian  side?  What  forms  of  government  appear 
in  the  Greek  cities  at  this  time,  and  by  whom  is  each  supported? 
Instances.  Why  does  the  Tyrant  of  Miletus  fear  he  will  lose  his 
power  or  life?  How  will  "establishing  equality " help  him?  What 
city  ranks  first  in  Greece?  Proof.  What  next?  Proof.  What 
spirit  in  the  Athenians  makes  them  hostile  to  Persia?  What  party 
in  Athens  will  favor  Persia?  What  city  has  the  most  sympathy 
with  other  Greek  cities?  Proof.-  What  part  of  the  new  Athenian 
constitution  do  we  see  tested  in  this  war  ?  To  what  does  it  owe  its 
success?  What  good  characteristic  does  Sparta  show  when  Athens 
asks  her  for  help?  WTiat  is  your  opinion  of  it  in  this  particular 
case  ?  If  Persia  had  conquered,  who  would  have  governed  Athens  ? 
What  advantage  would  Persia  probably  have  gained  in  this  event  ? 
What  qualities  are  displayed  by  the  Athenians  in  the  Battle  of  Mara- 
thon ?  by  the  Athenian  generals  ?  Comparing  Athens  and  Persia, 
why  should  Athens  beat?  Write  a  comparison  between  Persia  and 
Hellas  at  490  B.C. 

II.    ^Account  of  Interval  of  Preparation.    (Abridged  from 
Herodotus.) 

From  the  day  of  Marathon  to  the  invasion  of  Xerxes, 
the  two  men  most  prominent  in  Attica  were  Aristides 


STUDY   ON   PERSIAN    WARS.  77 

and  Themistocles.  The  former  represented  the  aristo- 
cratic, the  latter,  the  democratic  elements  at  Athens;  the 
rivalry  of  their  partisans  so  threatened  the  prosperity  of 
the  city,  that  they  appealed  to  the  ostracism,  by  which 
Aristides  was  sent  into  exile. 

It  was  during  this  time  that  the  Athenians  had  a 
surplus  in  the  treasury,  and  the  Ecclesia  was  about  to 
vote  its  equal  division  among  all  the  citizens ;  but  The- 
mistocles persuaded  them  instead  to  add  two  hundred 
ships  to  their  navy,  arguing  that  thus  they  might  better 
prosecute  the  war  then  going  on  with  ^Egina,  and  also 
be  better  prepared  for  any  new  contest  with  Persia. 
He  also  indicated  a  better  harbor  for  Athens,  which 
might  be  well  defended  by  the  use  of  some  of  the  extra 
funds. 

Meanwhile,  Darius  had  died;  but  his  general,  Mar- 
donius,  was  constantly  urging  his  son  and  successor, 
Xerxes,  to  lead  an  army  against  Athens,  and  the  Pisis- 
tratids  urged  him  no  less.  So  his  satraps  gathered  troops 
diligently  for  three  years  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire,  and 
in  the  tenth  year  from  Marathon,  Xerxes  marched  towards 
the  Hellespont  with  more  than  1,000,000  men  of  Asia 
and  Africa.  "  On  his  arrival  at  Sardis,  he  ...  sent  her- 
alds to  Greece  to  demand  earth  and  water  .  .  .  but  he  sent 
neither  to  Athens  nor  Laceclsemon."  The  Athenians 
at  this  juncture  asked  the  advice  of  Delphi,  and  were 
told  that  they  must  "  inspire  their  minds  with  courage  to 
meet  misfortunes."  Deeply  dejected,  they  sent  once  more 
to  the  oracle,  and  received  the  answer  that  Zeus  could  not 
be  propitiated,  that  the  Athenians  must  withdraw  from 
the  forces  advancing  against  them,  but  that  Zeus  gave  a 
"wooden  walj "  as  an  impregnable  defence,  and  that 
"divine  Salamis"  should  cause  many  men  to  perish. 
Themistocles  interpreted  this  to  mean  that  the  Athenians 


78  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

should  make  no  defence  on  land,  but  should  carry  their 
gods,  their  families,  and  their  goods  to  Salamis,  while  they 
themselves  should  retreat  to  the  "  wooden  walls  "  of  their 
ships  and  meet  the  Persians  by  sea.  He  further  said  that 
Salamis  was  called  "  divine "  because  there  the  Persian 
hosts  would  meet  destruction.  This  interpretation  was 
accepted,  and  it  was  decided  to  abandon  Attica  for  the 
straits  and  the  island  of  Salamis.  (See  map,  p.  66.) 

Themistocles  also  proposed,  and  the  Ecclesia  voted,  to 
revoke  all  decrees  of  banishment  or  ostracism,  especially 
that  against  Aristides.  It  was  now  thought  best  to  call  a 
general  Hellenic  congress,  and  while  the  king  was  yet  at 
Sardis,  "the  Greeks  who  were  better  affected  towards 
Greece  met  together  [at  the  Isthmus]  .  .  .  and  determined 
all  existing  enmities  and  quarrels  with  each  other." 
Thus  JEgina  and  Athens  made  peace ;  but  Argos,  being 
hostile  to  Sparta,  took  no  part  in  the  council.  Ambassa- 
dors were  sent  even  to  Sicily  to  ask  the  Sicilian  Greeks  to 
join  the  Lacedaemonians,  the  Athenians,  and  their  allies ; 
but  the  Tyrant  of  Syracuse  would  only  consent  on  condi- 
tion of  having  the  command  of  the  war,  which  neither 
Athens  nor  Sparta  would  allow,  and  so  they  missed  the 
help  of  Sicily.  The  Corcyrseans  were  also  asked,  and 
promised  help ;  and  preparing  their  sixty  ships,  they  drew 
near  to  the  Peloponnesus,  but  there  anchored  and  watched 
how  events  would  turn,  thinking,  if  the  Persians  won, 
they  should  get  good  terms,  as  not  having  opposed  them ; 
while  to  the  Greeks  they  excused  themselves  on  account 
of  contrary  winds,  which,  they  said,  delayed  them. 

As  to  the  leadership  by  sea,  "  from  the  first  there  had 
been  a  talk  .  .  .  that  it  would  be  proper  to  trust  the  navy 
to  the  Athenians.  But  as  the  allies  opposed,  the  Atheni- 
ans gave  way,  deeming  it  of  high  importance  that  Greece 
should  be  saved." 


STUDY    ON    PERSIAN    WARS.  79 

It  was  also  decided  at  this  congress  that  Greece  should 
make  her  first  stand  against  Xerxes  at  Thermopylae. 

Meanwhile  Xerxes  advanced  to  the  Hellespont,  which 
had  been  bridged  by  the  Phoanicians  and  Egyptians ;  but 
a  storm  had  broken  the  bridges  up ;  whereupon  Xerxes 
had  the  engineers  beheaded,  and  the  Hellespont  scourged 
with  300  lashes,  while  it  was  thus  addressed :  "  Thy 
master  inflicts  this  punishment  upon  thee,  because 
thou  hast  injured  him  .  .  .  and  King  Xerxes  will  cross 
over  thee  whether  thou  wilt  or  not."  New  bridges  were 
then  built  and  the  army  crossed  them  "  under  the  lash  "  : 
the  passage  occupied  seven  continuous  days  and  nights. 
In  Thrace,  the  army  was  numbered,  and  Herodotus  tells 
us  that  the  land  forces  alone  amounted  to  more  than 
1,500,000 ;  there  were  in  this  army  Medes  and  Persians, 
armed  with  spears,  bows,  and  daggers;  Assyrians,  with 
spears,  daggers,  and  clubs  knotted  with  iron ;  Scythians, 
with  bows,  daggers,  and  battle-axes ;  Arabians  and  Hin- 
doos with  bows  and  arrows ;  Ethiopians,  painted  for 
battle,  half  in  red  and  half  in  white,  who  had  arrowheads 
of  stone.  Herodotus  names  more  than  forty  different 
nations  or  tribes  in  the  army,  and  more  than  twelve  on 
the  1200  ships  of  the  fleet. 

Provisions  had  been  ordered  long  beforehand  for  this 
host ;  heralds  had  been  sent  along  the  route,  and  every- 
body "made  flour  and  meal  for  many  months  .  .  .  fatted 
cattle  .  .  .  fed  land  and  water  fowl  in  coops  and  ponds  " ; 
even  then,  it  does  not  seem  that  the  army  was  fed  more 
than  once  a  day.  As  Xerxes  marched  through  Thrace 
and  Macedonia,  the  tribes  submitted  without  attempting 
resistance.  In  Macedonia  he  received  the  heralds  who 
had  been  sent  out  to  demand  earth  and  water  from  the 
Greek  cities.  Many  had  submitted,  and  "against  these 
the  Greeks  who  had  engaged  in  war  with  the  barbarians 


80  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

made  this  solemn  oath :  .  .  .  '  Whatever  Greeks  have  given 
themselves  up  to  the  Persian  without  compulsion,  shall, 
so  soon  as  their  affairs  are  restored  to  order,  ...  be 
compelled  to  pay  a  tithe  to  the  god  at  Delphi.'  " 

STUDY  ON    II. 

What  sort  of  a  power  does  Themistocles  wish  to  make  of  Athens  ? 
What  geographical  facts  favor  this  policy?  What  provision  of  the 
Clisthenean  constitution  appears  at  work  in  this  interval?  What 
advantage  does  it  -give  the  state?  What  new  Greek  organization 
appears  during  this  time,  and  what  has  produced  it?  In  order  to 
carry  any  political  or  military  measure  at  Athens,  what  is  necessary  ? 
What  is  necessary  to  accomplish  it  in  Persia  ?  What  characteristics 
shown  by  the  Athenians  in  the  various  incidents  of  the  interval? 
What  by  Themistocles?  What  spirit  is  displayed  by  the  Tyrant 
of  Syracuse?  By  the  Corcyraeans?  TheArgives?  What  new  proof 
have  we  that  Hellas  is  composed  of  independent  states  ?  What 
power  in  Greece  is  acknowledged  to  have  a  right  to  hold  any  individual 
Greek  state  responsible?  Name  two  occasions  in  which  Athens 
probably  saves  Greece  during  this  time.  How  does  she  do  it  each 
time?  How  are  the  forces  of  Xerxes  governed?  How  is  his  army 
a  strong  one  ?  How  weak  ?  How  does  he  conquer  Thrace  and  Mace- 
donia ?  What  Greek  city  is  algne  able  to  meet  the  Persian  fleet  ? 

III.   Account  of  Second  Persian  War.    (Abridged  from 
Herodotus.) 

1.  According  to  the  decision  of  the  Hellenic  congress 
at  the  Isthmus,  a  force  of  Greeks  was  sent  to  await  the 
Persians  at  Thermopylae.  This  force  consisted  of  300 
Spartans  and  about  5000  other  Greeks,  whom  Leonidas, 
king  of  Lacedeemon,  was  commanding.  The  Spartans 
sent  so  few  because  a  religious  festival  was  then  being 
held,  and,  moreover,  it  was  the  season  of  the  Olympic 
games.  Xerxes  having  been  informed  of  this,  asked  what 
could  be  the  reward  for  which  they  so  earnestly  contended 
in  these  games.  On  being  answered,  "  An  olive-wreath," 


STUDY   OK   PERSIAN   \VAIiS. 


81 


one  of  his  nobles  standing  by  exclaimed,  "Heavens, 
Mardonius,  against  what  kind  of  men  have  you  brought 
us  to  fight,  who  contend  not  for  wealth  but  for  glory ! " 
Arriving  near  Thermopylae,  Xerxes  "let  four  days  pass, 
constantly  expecting  the  Greeks  to  take  to  flight.  But 
on  the  fifth  day,  .  .  .  being  enraged,"  he  sent  men  against 
them  "  to  take  them  alive " ;  so  many  of  the  Persians, 
however,  fell,  that  the  king  saw  that  he  had  "  many  men, 


but  few  soldiers."     Thereupon  he  sent  his  choicest  war- 
riors ;  these,  too,  were  beaten  back  with  great  loss. 

While  the  king  was  in  doubt  what  next  to  do,  a  Malian 
Greek  informed  him  of  a  mountain  path  around  the  pass. 
Along  this  way  the  Persians  marched  all  night.  "  Morn- 
ing appeared,  and  they  were  on  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
tain. .  .  .  To  those  of  the  Greeks  who  were  at  Thermopylae, 
a  priest,  having  inspected  the  sacrifices,  first  made  known 
the  death  that  would  befall  them,"  and  shortly  news 


82  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

of  "the  circuit  the  Persians  were  taking.  .  .  .  Upon  this, 
the  Greeks  held  a  consultation,  and  .  .  .  some  departed  and 
.  .  .  others  prepared  to  remain."  Among  the  latter  were 
Leonidas  and  the  Spartans,  who  "  could  not  honorably 
desert  the  post  which  they  originally  came  to  defend." 
Nor  did  Leonidas  fear  for  Sparta,  but  thought  by  remain- 
ing to  gain  glory  for  himself  and  safety  for  her ;  since  the 
Delphic  oracle  had  already  foretold  that,  in  this  war, 
either  Sparta  or  her  king  must  perish.  The  Thespians 
also  remained  with  the  Spartans. 

About  noon  the  fight  began.  "Great  numbers  of  the 
barbarians  fell ;  for  the  officers  of  the  companies  flogged 
their  men  forward  with  scourges,  thus  urging  them  on ; 
from  which  it  occurred  that  many  fell  into  the  sea,  and 
many  more  were  trampled  .  .  .  under  foot."  Leonidas 
fell,  but  the  Greeks  fought  on  —  with  swords  when  their 
javelins  were  broken,  with  hands  and  teeth  when  swords 
were  gone  —  until,  at  last,  they  were  overwhelmed  with 
barbarian  missiles.  "  In  honor  of  the  slain  .  .  .  the  follow- 
ing inscription  was  engraved  over  them :  '  Four  thousand 
from  Peloponnesus  once  fought  on  this  spot  with  300 
myriads'  .  .  .  and  for  the  Spartans  in  particular  was 
written :  '  Stranger,  go  tell  the  Lacedaemonians  that  here 
we  lie,  obedient  to  their  commands.'  .  .  .  The  Delphic 
Amphictyons  are  the  persons  who  honored  them  with 
these  inscriptions.  .  .  .  Thus  the  Greeks  fought  at  Ther- 
mopylae." 

STUDY  ON  I. 

What  sort  of  unity  had  the  Persian  forces  ?  What  sort  did  they 
lack?  Same  of  Greek  forces.  Which  side  had  the  best  organization 
for  war  ?  How  was  the  other  side  compensated  for  this  lack  ?  AVhat 
new  proof  have  we  that  the  object  of  the  Persian  Empire  was  wealth  ? 
Why  are  men  that  fight  for  glory  worse  foes  than  those  who  fight  for 
wealth  ?  Why  was  Thermopylae  well  chosen  ?  Why  should  Xerxes 
expect  the  Spartans  to  flee?  Explain  the  phrase  "many  men,  but 


STUDY   ON   PERSIAN   WARS.  83 

few  soldiers."  What  spirit  did  Leonidas  show?  the  Spartans?  To 
whom  was  a  leader  more  necessary,  the  Persians  or  the  Spartans? 
Two  proofs.  Name  all  the  facts  in  this  war  that  would  prove  the 
statement,  "  The  Greeks  honored  their  gods." 

2.  The  Persians,  then  advancing,  wasted  the  fields  and 
burned  the  cities  as  they  went ;  and  the  Athenians  began 
to  send  away  their  families  to  the  islands;  the  faster, 
because  the  priestess  announced  that  the  goddess  Athena 
had  left  the  Acropolis. 

The  fleets  of  either  side  had  been  stationed  near  Ther- 
mopylae, but,  on  receiving  news  of  the  battle  there  fought, 
the  Greeks  sailed  for  Athens,  putting  in  at  Salamis,  and 
the  Persians  followed.  The  Grecian  fleet,  though  fur- 
nished by  Athenians,  Isthmians,  and  Islanders,  was  under 
the  command  of  the  Spartan  Eurybiades,  who,  after  reach- 
ing Salamis,  quickly  called  a  council  of  commanders  to 
decide  where  to  engage  the  Persians ;  the  council  decided 
to  retreat  to  the  Isthmus,  and  there  defend  Peloponnesus, 
since  Athens  was  now  burned  and  Attica  wasted.  An 
Athenian,  however,  going  to  Themistocles,  argued  that  if 
once  the  ships  left  Salamis,  no  power  would  keep  them 
from  dispersing.  Themistocles  thereupon  begged  Eurybi- 
ades to  call  another  council,  and  therein  advised  the 
Greeks  to  remain  in  the  Salaminian  Straits  rather  than 
retire  to  the  open  waters  near  the  Isthmus  (see  map, 
p.  66)  ;  he  reminded  them,  too,  of  the  words  of  the  oracle 
concerning  "  divine  Salamis,"  and  finally  threatened  that 
if  the  allies  would  not  remain,  the  Athenians  would  at 
once  set  sail  for  Italy,  and  there  found  a  new  Athens. 
Thus  persuaded,  the  allies  remained.  "  Day  came,  and  at 
sunrise  an  earthquake  passed  over  land  and  sea."  The 
Greeks  invoked  the  aid  of  the  gods,  as  the  Persians  "  drew 
up  near,  taking  their  stations  in  silence."  News  came 
now  that  the  Persian  army  was  advancing  upon  the 


84  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Isthmus,  whereupon  the  Pelopoimesians  in  the  fleet  once 
more  called  a  council,  still  wishing  the  ships  to  retire  from 
Salamis.  Themistocles,  no  longer  able  to  dissuade  them, 
secretly  sent  word  to  the  Persians  to  close  both  ends  of 
the  Salaminian  Strait,  and  thus  the  Persians  did,  under 
cover  of  the  night.  "  While  the  generals  were  disputing, 
Aristides  .  .  .  crossed  over  from  ^Egina,"  and  called 
Themistocles  out  of  council,  and  said,  "  It  is  right  that  we 
should  strive  .  .  .  which  of  us  shall  do  the  greatest  service 
to  our  country.  .  .  .  We  are  on  all  sides  surrounded  by  the 
enemy.  Go  in,  therefore,  and  acquaint  them  with  this." 

Themistocles  replied,  "You  .  . .  have  brought  good  news 

Know,  then,  that  this  .  .  .  proceeds  from  me.  For,  since 
the  Greeks  would  not  willingly  come  to  an  engagement, 
it  was  necessary  to  force  them  against  their  will.  But  do 
you  .  .  .  announce  it  to  them  yourself;  for  if  I  tell  them,  I 
shall  appear  to  speak  from  my  own  invention."  Aristides 
then  entered  the  council,  and  told  them  that  they  were 
surrounded  by  the  enemy,  and  must  prepare  to  fight. 
Themistocles  also  spoke  with  rousing  eloquence.  The 
poet  JEschylus  thus  describes  the  battle,  which  ended  in 
the  victory  of  the  Greeks :  — 

"When  now  the  Day,  driving  white  steeds,  filled  the  wide 
earth  with  glory,  a  shout  from  the  Greeks  rang  forth,  greeted 
Echo  like  a  song,  and  Echo  answered  from  the  island-rock, 
inspiring.  Then  terror  fell  on  the  Persian  ships  and  tents  ;  .  .  . 
not  for  flight  were  the  Greeks  chanting  their  solemn  paeans,  but 
for  proud  and  daring  battle.  The  clanging  trumpet  fired  their 
line ;  instant  at  the  word  they  smote  the  roaring  brine  with 
dashing  oars.  .  .  .  Then  we  heard  the  mightv  shout :  '  On,  Sons 
of  the  Greeks,  free  your  land,  your  children,  and  your  wives ; 
the  temples  of  the  gods  and  the  tombs  of  your  fathers  t  Tf  is 
day  decides  for  all.' 

"...  Then  ship  dashed  brazen  prow  at  ship.  .  .  .  At  first, 
indeed,  the  strong  stream  of  the  Persian  fleet  withstood  the 


STUDY   ON   PERSIAN   WARS.  85 

onset ;  but  we  were  massed  within  the  strait,  while  they, 
awkwardly  crowding,  struck  each  other  with  their  brazen  beaks  ; 
.  .  .  but  the  Greeks  were  skilfully  smiting  them  round  about  on 
every  side.  .  .  .  The  shores  and  rugged  rocks  were  lined  with 
dead.  .  .  .  Never  fell  in  a  single  day  so  many  men." 

STUDY  ON   2. 

Why  are  the  Athenians  in  greater  haste  to  leave  Athens  because 
the  goddess  has  left?  What  reason  is  there  to  think  that  the  Greeks 
will  disperse  if  once  they  leave  Salamis  ?  What  geographical  advan- 
tage in  Salamis?  What  three  different  kinds  of  argument  does 
Themistocles  employ  to  keep  the  Greeks  at  Salamis?  What  spirit 
is  shown  by  Sparta  at  this  time?  Themistocles?  Aristides?  How 
do  you  know  which  of  these  men  has  the  greater  character  for  hon- 
esty? Who  is  the  real  commander  at  Salamis?  What  makes  him 
so?  What  is  the  point  of  his  sending  word  to  the  Persians  to  close 
the  straits  ?  What  does  the  event  of  Salamis  prove  in  regard  to  the 
policy  of  Themistocles  from  490  to  480? 

3.  After  Salamis,  the  Greeks  divide  the  booty,  dedicating 
the  first  fruits  of  their  victory  to  Delphi.  Xerxes  hastily 
returns  to  Persia,  leaving  picked  forces  with  Mardonius, 
with  which  to  "  reduce  Greece  to  slavery."  After  wintering 
in  Thessaly,  Mardonius  marched  into  Greece.  Before 
starting,  he  sent  ambassadors  to  the  Athenians,  hoping  to 
make  them  his  allies,  and  promising  them  forgiveness,  the 
restoration  of  their  lands,  and  the  rebuilding  of  their 
temples,  if  they  would  but  be  friendly  to  the  Great  King. 
Sparta,  fearing  lest  Athens  might  yield,  also  sent  her  an 
embassy,  promising  aid  in  case  of  war.  To  the  Persian 
messenger,  the  Athenians  replied,  "  We  will  defend  our- 
selves in  such  manner  as  we  are  able.  But  do  not  attempt 
to  persuade  us  to  come  to  terms  with  the  barbarians,  for 
we  will  not  be  persuaded.  Go,  then,  and  tell  Mardonius 
that  ...  so  long  as  the  sun  shall  continue  in  the  same 
course  as  now,  we  will  never  make  terms  with  Xerxes,  but 


86  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

will  go  out  to  oppose  him,  trusting  in  the  gods,  who  fight 
for  us."  To  the  Spartans  they  answered,  "  There  is  not 
so  much  gold  anywhere  in  the  world,  nor  a  country  so 
preeminent  in  beauty  and  fertility  as  to  persuade  us  to 
side  with  Persia  in  enslaving  Greece.  For  there  are  many 
and  powerful  considerations  that  forbid  us  to  do  so,  even 
if  we  were  inclined.  First  and  chief,  we  must  avenge  to 
the  uttermost  the  images  and  dwellings  of  the  gods  now 
burned  and  laid  in  ruins.  .  .  .  Secondly,  the  Grecian  race 
being  of  the  same  blood,  and  of  the  same  language,  and 
having  the  temples  and  sacrifices  of  the  gods  in  common  .  .  . 
for  the  Athenians  to  betray  these  would  not  be  well. 
Know,  therefore  .  .  .  that  so  long  as  one  Athenian  is  left 
alive,  we  will  never  make  terms  with  Xerxes." 

Mardonius,  receiving  this  answer,  advanced  towards 
Athens.  On  reaching  Thebes,  the  Thebans  advised  him 
not  to  fight  the  Greeks,  but  to  "  send  money  to  the  chief 
men  in  each  city,"  and  thus  "split  Greece  into  parties, 
and  .  .  .  subdue  those  not  on  your  side."  Mardonius,  how- 
ever, did  not  take  this  advice,  but  marched  on  and  met 
the  Greeks  in  battle  at  Platsea.  In  this  battle  the  Spar- 
tans held  one  wing,  while  the  Arcadians  and  the  Atheni- 
ans each  claimed  the  honor  of  leading  the  other ;  the 
Arcadians  because  they  had  always  had  it,  the  Athenians 
because  of  their  deeds,  especially  at  Marathon.  But  the 
Athenians  left  it  to  the  Lacedsemonians,  saying,  " '  It  is 
not  becoming  on  such  an  occasion  as  this  to  contend  about 
position.  .  .  .  Command  us  as  ready  to  obey.'  .  .  .  And  the 
whole  army  of  Lacedaemonians  shouted  out  that  the 
Athenians  were  more  worthy  to  lead  the  wing  than  the 
Arcadians."  Sacrifices  having  been  offered  by  either 
army,  the  battle  began.  In  this  fight  Mardonius  fell,  and 
the  Greek  victory  was  complete.  A  tenth  of  the  rich 
spoils  was  given  to  Delphi.  Thus  the  army  of  Xerxes 


STUDY    ON   THE   ATHENIAN   LEADERSHIP.  87 

was  finally  overthrown,  and  on  the  same  day  his  fleet 
was  beaten  by  Greek  ships  at  Mycale.  These  two  battles 
effectively  broke  the  strength  of  the  Persian. 

STUDY  ON   3. 

How  does  Mardonius  try  to  conquer  Athens?  What  makes  him 
naturally  suppose  this  plan  would  succeed?  What  three  feelings 
are  shown  by  the  Athenians  ?  What  do  they  name  as  the  bonds  of 
Hellenic  union  ?  Who  puts  Greece  in  the  greater  danger,  the  Thebans 
or  Mardonius?  Why?  What  reason  have  the  Thebans  to  give  the 
advice  they  do?  In  the  Battle  of  Plataea,  what  spirit  is  shown  by 
the  Athenians?  What  proofs  have  we  that  war  is  a  religious  act 
among  the  Greeks  ? 

In  General.  —  In  what  cases  in  the  Persian  wars  does  the  Greek 
action  depend  on  single  men  ?  How  are  these  men  able  to  accomplish 
their  will?  What  is  the  use  of  the  Battle  of  Thermopylae ?  What 
city  of  Greece  deserves  the  lead  at  the  close  of  the  wars  ?  Why  ? 
What  results  of  Greek  organization  appear  in  the  Persian  wars? 
(a)  at  Thermopylae?  (5)  at  Salamis? 


D.   STUDY  ON  THE  ATHENIAN  LEADEESHIP  (AGE  OF 
PEKIOLES),  479-431. 

Chief  contemporary  sources:  Herodotus,  Thucydides; 
the  plays  of  Euripides,  Aristophanes,  and  the  other  lit- 
erary remains  of  the  period;  the  monuments  and  remains 
of  Athens,  —  notably  the  Parthenon,  the  temple  erected 
on  the  Acropolis  in  honor  of  Athene,  and  the  fragments 
of  Parthenon  sculpture  known  as  the  "  Elgin  marbles," 
and  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Other  original  sources :  Plutarch,  Xenophon,  Aristotle, 
Plato,  and  the  extant  writings  of  the  philosophers, 
orators,  and  sophists  of  the  generation  succeeding  this 
age. 

Chief  modern  authorities  :  Grote,  Curtius,  Lloyd. 


STUDIES    IN   GENERAL    HISTORY. 


STUDY    ON    THE    ATHENIAN    LEADERSHIP.  89 

1.     Summary  of  Principal  Events.    (Quotations  from  Thucy- 
dides  unless  otherwise  indicated.) 

Battles  of  Platsea  and  My c ale;  after  Platsea, 
Aristides  proposed  a  general  Hellenic  confed- 
eracy against  the  Persians ;  to  this  the  Greeks 
consented.  After  Mycale,  the  Samians,  Chians,  and  Les- 
bians were  admitted  into  this  confederacy,  and  the  allied 
Greeks  sailed  for  the  Hellespont ;  all  save  the  Peloponne- 
sians  .  .  .  who  decided  to  sail  away  home.  Under  the  lead 
of  the  Athenians,  the  allies  recovered  Lesbos.  —  State 


SCULPTURE   FROM   THE   PARTHENON   FRIEZE. 

offices  were  opened  to  all  classes  of  Athenian  citizens. —  The 
Athenians  "set  to  work  rebuilding  the  city  and  the  walls. 
.  .  .  The  Lacedaemonians  would  rather  themselves  have 
seen  neither  the  Athenians  nor  any  one  else  protected  by 
a  wall;  and  their  allies  dreaded  not  only  the  Athenian 
navy,  .  .  .  but  also  the  spirit  which  had  animated  them  in 
the  Persian  war.  So  the  Lacedaemonians  asked  them  not 
to  restore  their  walls.''  But  the  Athenians,  "men,  women 
and  children,"  urged  on  and  advised  by  Themistocles, 
completed  them,  before  the  Spartans  could  prevent.  The 


90  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

spoils  of  Mycale  were  devoted  to  adorning  public  gardens 
and  porticoes. 

The  Hellenic  allies  under  the  lead  of  the 
Spartan  king,  Pausanias,  sailed  for  Byzantium, 
which  they  recovered  from  the  Persians.  But 
Pausanias  had  already  begun  to  be  despotic,  and  "  the 
allies  were  offended  .  .  .  and  had  recourse  to  ...  the 
Athenians,  begging  them  to  be  their  leaders.  .  .  .  Thus 
the  Athenians  obtained  the  leadership.  They  immediately 
fixed  which  of  the  cities  should  supply  money  and  which 
.  .  .  ships  for  the  war  against  the  Barbarian."  Aristides, 
then  commander  of  the  Athenian  fleet,  was  chosen  by 
desire  of  the  allies  to  determine  the  amount  and  manner 
of  this  tribute  for  each.  "  Then  was  first  instituted  at 
Athens  the  office  of  Hellenic  Treasurers,  who  received 
the  tribute.  .  .  .  The  island  of  Delos  [sacred  to  Apollo] 
was  their  treasury,  and  the  meetings  of  the  allies  were 
held  in  the  temple  there.  The  allies  were  at  first  inde- 
pendent, and  deliberated  in  a  common  assembly  under  the 
leadership  of  Athens." 

Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  then  took  command  of  the 
allied  fleet,  and  freed  the  northern  coast  of  the  JEgsean 
from  the  Barbarian. 

The  treasury  was  transferred  to  Athens,  and  many  of 
the  allies  began  to  pay  in  money  instead  of  in  men  and 
ships. 

The  island  of  Scyros,  with  its  fine  harbor,  was  rid  of 
pirates  and  settled  by  Athenians. 

The  Naxian  allies  revolted,  and  the  Athenians 
"made  war  against  them.  .  .  .  This  was  the  first 
of  the  allied  cities  which  was  subjugated  contrary 
to  the  agreement."  About  the  same  time,  the  Thasiaii 
allies  revolted,  quarreling  with  Athens  concerning  their 
rights  to  a  market  and  some  mines  near  by.  Athens 


STUDY    ON    THE   ATHENIAN    LEADERSHIP.  91 

subduing  them,  compelled  them  to  pull  down  their  walls, 
deliver  up  their  ships,  pay  tribute,  surrender  their  claims 
to  the  mine  and  the  market.  —  Pericles  carried  the  meas- 
ure of  the  "  Theoricon,"  by  which  every  Athenian  citizen 
might  obtain  from  the  public  treasury,  now  well-filled  by 
the  allies,  the  money  necessary  to  attend  the  theatre. 
The  citizens  now  also  began  to  receive  pay  for  serving  in 
the  army  and  in  the  courts. —  The  Helots,  aided  by  the 
Messenians,  revolted  against  the  Spartans. 


461 

TO 
450. 


The  Spartans,  hard  pressed,  called  to  their  aid 
the  Athenians,  who  sent  them  a  force  under 
Cimon;  but  after  its  arrival,  the  Lacedaemonians, 
"fearing  the  boldness  and  the  progressive  spirit  of  the 
Athenians,  and  moreover  considering  that  they  were  of  a 
different  race  from  themselves,  dismissed  them  alone  of 
all  the  allies."  The  Athenians  therefore  broke  their  alli- 
ance with 'Sparta,  and  ostracizing  Cimon,  who  had  per- 
suaded them  to  send  her  aid,  followed  rather  the  lead  of 
Pericles,  joined  themselves  to  the  enemies  of  Sparta 
abroad,  and  reduced  the  power  of  the  Areopagus  at  home. 

The  Phocians  attacked  towns  in  Doris  and 
took  control  of  the  Delphic  oracle  ;  the  Spartans 
interfering,  restored  the  Doric  towns  and  Delphi 
to  their  previous  possessors,  strengthened  the  Oligarchs  of 
Thebes  and  the  neighboring  towns,  and  occupying  the  for- 
tress of  Tanagra,  threatened  Athens.  At  their  departure, 
the  Athenians  at  once  restored  the  democrats  of  the 
Boeotian  towns  to  power.  Soon  after,  the  ^Eginetans 
came  to  terms  with  the  Athenians,  "dismantling  their 
walls,  surrendering  their  ships,  and  agreeing  to  pay 
tribute." 

The  Messenians  and  Helots  were  conquered  by  Sparta ; 
the  Messenians,  banished  from  Peloponnesus,  were  settled 
by  the  Athenians  in  one  of  their  own  towns. 


92  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

r~ — 1  Five  years'  truce  between  Athens  and  Sparta.  — 
TO  I  Pericles  proposed  a  Pan-Hellenic  convention  "to 
consult  about  rebuilding  the  Grecian  temples 


which  the  barbarians  had  burnt,  and  about  providing 
those  sacrifices  which  had  been  vowed,  during  the  Persian 
war,  for  the  preservation  of  Greece,  and  likewise  to  enter 
into  such  measures  as  might  secure  navigation  and  main- 
tain the  peace.  ...  It  took  no  effect,  however,  nor  did  the 
cities  send  their  deputies ;  the  reason  of  which  is  said  to 
be  the  opposition  of  the  Lacedeemonians."  —  About  this 
time  new  offices  were  established  at  Athens,  for  protecting 
streets  and  markets,  preserving  just  standards  of  weight 
and  measure,  and  overseeing  the  storing  and  sale  of 
grain. 

It  is  reported  that  the  Persians  now  made  peace  with  the 
Athenians,  promising  the  independence  of  the  Asiatic 
Greeks,  and  agreeing  that  no  Persian  ship  should  appear 
in  the  ^Egsean  or  the  Bosphorus.  —  The  exiled  Theban 
Oligarchs  [aristocrats]  fought  and  defeated  the  Athenians 
at  Coronea.  — Thirty  years'  peace  was  agreed  upon  between 
Sparta  and  Athens. 

Pericles  thoroughly  organized  the  citizen-jury  assem- 
blies, and  obtained  that  those  who  served  upon  them 
should  be  paid  by  the  city  from  the  treasury,  now  richly 
supplied  by  the  confederacy. 

"Now  war  broke  out  between  the  Samians  and  Mile- 
sians .  .  . ;  and  the  Milesians  being  worsted  .  .  .  went  to 
the  Athenians,  .  .  .  some  private  individuals  from  Samos 
itself  taking  part  with  them,  from  a  wish  to  effect  a 
revolution.  .  .  .  The  Athenians  therefore  sailed  to  Samos 
[Pericles  commanding]  .  .  .  arid  established  a  democracy." 
The  exiled  Oligarchs,  then  hiring  troops,  returned  and 
re-established  their  power ;  but  the  Athenians,  again 
investing  Samos,  entirely  reduced  it,  compelling  it  to  "  dis- 


STUDY    ON   THE    ATHENIAN    LEADERSHIP.  93 

mantle  its  wall,  deliver  up  its  ships,  and  pay  the  cost  of 
the  war." 

STUDY  ON  I. 

Why  were  Sestos  and  Byzantium  important  to  gain?  How  and 
when  had  the  Greeks  learned  this  ?  To  which  Greek  state  were  they 
the  most  important,  and  why  ?  What  was  the  character  of  Aristidea 
among  the  allies  ?  Prove  it. 

Part  of  this  period  is  called  that  of  the  Athenian  leadership,  and 
part  that  of  the  Athenian  empire ;  when  and  why  will  you  apply  each 
term  ?  Why  was  it  necessary  for  every  member  of  the  Confederacy 
of  Delos  to  be  held  to  that  union  by  Athens?  What  difference  be- 
tween this  and  former  Hellenic  unions  ?  What  new  bond  of  union 
in  it  ?  How  did  Athens  obtain  leadership  ?  How  empire  ?  How  did 
she  use  her  imperial  power  ?  Her  imperial  wealth  ?  What  seems  to 
have  been  the  chief  occupation  of  the  Athenians  ?  Prove  it.  What 
policy  adopted  by  the  allies  weakened  themselves  and  strengthened 
Athens  ?  Do  you  consider  the  Confederacy  of  Delos  a  failure  or  a 
success  ?  To  whom  or  what  do  you  attribute  this  ?  What  party  ruled 
in  Athens  ?  What  proof  of  this  ?  How  could  its  leader  carry  its 
measures  ?  What  measures  of  this  period  were  characteristic  of  the 
ruling  party?  What  inconsistency  between  the  rule  of  Athens  at 
home  and  abroad  ? 

What  seems  to  have  been  the  state  of  affairs  everywhere  within  the 
cities  at  this  time?  What  is  the  attitude  of  Athens  toward  these 
affairs?  of  Sparta?  What  is  the  general  relation  of  the  Greek  states 
to  each  other  ?  to  Athens  ?  Where  alone  do  we  find  a  sentiment  of 
Panhellenism ?  When  does  this  appear? 


2.  Summary  of  Events  from  435  to  431. 

The  affair  of  Corcyra  and  declaration  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.  —  These  things  occurred  as  follows :  In  the 
city  of  Epidamnus,  a  colony  of  Corcyra,  herself  colonized 
from  Corinth,  the  aristocrats  were  driven  out  by  the 
democrats ;  the  exiles  "  went  over  to  the  barbarians,  and, 

uniting  with  them,  plundered  the  remaining  inhabitants 

These,  finding  themselves  hard-pressed,  sent  an  embassy  to 


94  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

the  mother-city,  Corcyra,  begging  the  Corcyraeans  not  to 
leave  them  to  their  fate.  .  .  .  But  the  Corcyrseans  would 
not  listen."  The  Epidamnians  then  asked  at  Delphi  if 
they  should  send  for  aid  to  the  Corinthians  as  being  their 
first  founders,  and  "  the  god  answered  that  they  should.  .  .  . 
The  Corinthians  took  up  their  cause,  partly  .  .  .  because 
they  hated  the  Corcyrseans,  who  were  their  own  colony, 
but  slighted  them  and  often  boasted  that  they  were  far 
superior  to  the  Corinthians  by  land  and  sea.  Irritated  by 
these  causes  of  offence,  the  Corinthians  were  too  happy  to 
assist  the  Epidamnians.  .  .  .  Great  was  the  rage  of  the 
Corcyrseans  when  they  found  .  .  .  that  the  colony  had 
been  given  up  to  the  Corinthians.  They  at  once  set  sail  .  .  . 
and  bade  the  Epidamnians  receive  the  exiled  Oligarchs, 
who  had  .  .  .  implored  the  Corcyrseans  to  restore  them, 
appealing  to  the  tie  of  kindred,  and  pointing  to  the  sepul- 
chres of  their  common  ancestors.  .  .  .  But  the  Epidamnians 
would  not  listen.  .  .  .  Whereupon  the  Corcyrasans  attacked 
them."  When  the  Corinthians  heard  of  this,  they  set  sail 
to  help  the  Epidamnian  democrats ;  but  were  badly  de- 
feated by  the  CorcyraBans,  who  then  "sailed  about  plun- 
dering the  Corinthian  allies."  For  two  years  the  Corin- 
thians took  the  utmost  pains  to  collect  a  great  fleet;  "and 
the  Corcyra3ans,  in  alarm  .  .  .  determined  to  go  to  Athens 
.  .  .  and  get  what  help  they  could."  The  Athenians, 
having  "no  mind  to  let  Corcyra  and  her  navy  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  Corinthians,"  consented  to  the  alliance, 
and  Corinth  was  again  defeated  by  the  help  of  the  Atheni- 
ans. The  Corinthians,  irritated  by  this  and  other  events, 
now  called  for  an  assembly  of  the  allies  at  Sparta,  and  war 
was  declared  by  the  Peloponnesians  against  the  Athenians, 
unless  the  latter  would  restore  independence  to  the  allies; 
on  the  motion  of  Pericles,  it  was  answered  that  they  would 
do  this  if  the  Spartans  would  allow  their  subject  states 


STUDY    ON    THE   ATHENIAN    LEADERSHIP.  1>O 

the  government  each  desired.  Pericles  also  asked  that 
arbitration,  instead  of  war,  should  settle  their  difficulties. 
As  the  Lacedaemonians  made  no  reply,  both  parties  pre- 
pared for  war. 

At   the   opening   of  this  war,  the    chief   allies  of  the 


MOSAIC   PATTERN. 

From  the  floor  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia.  The  outside  border  is  a  variation  of 
the  "  Greek  Fret,"  and  the  inside  border  a  modification  of  the  favorite  convention- 
alized honey-suckle;  the  central  design  represents  a  Triton  blowing  his  "  wreathed 
horn." 


Athenians  were  Islanders  and  Greeks  of  the  Thracian  and 
Asiatic  coasts ;  with  the  Spartans  stood  most  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesians,  and  the  states  north  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf. 


96 


STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


STUDY  ON   2. 

Why  did  Athens  not  wish  Corinth  to  have  Corcyra?  What 
motives  appeared  in  the  conduct  of  each  Greek  state  from  435  B.C. 
onward  ?  What  spirit  ?  What  seems  to  have  been  the  general  com- 
plaint of  the  Athenian  leadership?  of  the  Spartan?  What  state 
showed  most  civilization  in  the  declaration  of  war?  What  general 
geographical  difference  between  the  Athenian  and  the  Spartan  group  of 
states  at  the  close  of  this  period  ?  What  reason  can  you  give  for  this 
difference?  What  geographical  advantage  has  each  group?  Name 
the  successive  steps  by  which  the  Peloponnesian  War  was  brought  on. 
What  strikes  you  as  its  cause?  If  the  affair  of  Corcyra  had  not 
occurred,  would  war  have  followed  ?  Sustain  your  opinion. 


3.    List  of  Famous  Greeks  living  479-338  B.C. 

Those  marked  with  a  *  belong  to  the  age  of  Pericles, 
those  with  a  f  to  the  age  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  those 
with  a  J  to  that  of  the  Persian  War,  and  those  unmarked 
to  period  400-338. 


Name. 

Birth,  Circumstance, 
and  Training. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

_/Eschylus,*J 

Athenian 

Author    of    sixty  or   more    tragedies 

citizen,  .  .  . 

founded  on  Greek  myths,  except  the 

"  Persians,"  which  tells  the  story  of 

• 

the    battle  of    Salamis.     Introduces 

dialogue   and   action  into   dramatic 

writing. 

-/Eschines, 

Athenian 

Father  of  extemporary  oratory  amongst 

citizen  ;  actor, 

the  Greeks  ;  party  opponent  of  De- 

soldier,   law- 

mosthenes before  Ecclesia. 

yer's  clerk. 

Anaxagoras,* 

Asia  Minor; 

Mathematician   and   astronomer  ;    as- 

citizen of 

serts    mind    to    be    the    originating 

Ionian  Greek 

cause  of  the  universe  ;  philosopher. 

city. 

Aristides,*t 

Athenian  citi- 

Party   leader;     general    and    naval 

zen  of  noble 

commander.       (See    "  Summaries  of 

family. 

Events.") 

STUDY    ON   THE   ATHENIAN   LEADERSHIP. 


9? 


Name. 

Birth,  Circumstance, 
and  Training. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Aristophanes,! 

Athenian 
citizen.  .  .  . 

Author  of  more  than  forty  comedies, 
satirizing  political  and  military 
events,  the  people  and  magistrates  of 
Athens,  Socrates  and  the  Sophists,1 
Euripides  and  other  contemporaries. 

Aristotle, 

Citizen  of  Sta- 
gira,  a  Greek 
colony  in 
Macedonia  ; 
pupil  of  Plato. 

Tutor  of  Alexander  the  Great,  after- 
ward public  teacher  at  Athens; 
writes  more  than  four  hundred  works 
on  politics,  rhetoric,  and  literature, 
morals,  natural  history;  philosopher. 

Demosthenes, 

Citizen  of 
Athens  ;  stud- 
ied with  fine 
orators. 

Speeches  before  Ecclesia,  especially 
the  "  Philippics  "  directed  against 
Philip  of  Macedon,  whose  most  dan- 
gerous enemy  was  Demosthenes. 

Euripides,* 

Athenian    citi- 
zen; finely 
educated  ; 
special  athle- 
tic training. 

Author  of  seventy-five  tragedies,  found- 
ed on  Greek  myths  and  stories,  but 
often  adapted  to  contemporary  polit- 
ical circumstances. 

Epaminondas,t 

Theban   citizen 
of  fine  family, 
educated     in 

Founder  of  Theban  leadership.  (See 
"  Summary  of  Events.") 

military   tac- 
tics, gymnas- 
tics,  philoso- 
phy,     litera- 

ture. 

Gorgias,t 

Sicilian-Greek 
citizen  of 
noble    birth  ; 

Sophist  at  Athens  ;  speculator  in  the- 
ology; philosopher;  still  more  famous 
as  a  rhetorician. 

trained  by 
noted  philos- 
ophers. 

1  This  name  was  given  at  Athens  to  men  who  taught  for  pay ;  they 
professed  to  prepare  young  men,  as  Isoorates  said,  "to  think,  speak,  and 
act "  so  as  to  become  influential  and  typical  Athenians. 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


Name. 

Birth,  Circumstance, 
and  Training. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Herodotus,*! 

Greek  citizen  of 

Historian  of  the  conflicts  of  the  Greeks 

Asia   Minor  ; 

and  Persians,  embodying  in  his  ac- 

trayelled 

count  many  valuable  observations  on 

through 

the   manners,   customs,   institutions, 

Egypt,   Phoe- 

beliefs,  and   ideas   of  the   world  of 

nicia,    Tales- 

his  own  day. 

tine,  Tigro- 

Euphrates 

valley  (?), 

a,long  the 

^Egsean    and 

Black  Sea 

coasts. 

Hippocrates, 

Greek  citizen  of 

The  first  to  discard  superstition  and 

Cos;  studied 

base  medical  practice  on  observed 

medicine  and 

facts;  wrote  on  medicine  and  sur- 

philosophy at 

gery. 

Cos;  trav- 

elled widely; 

physician  and 

teacher  at 

Athens. 

Isoc  rates, 

Rich  Athenian 

Sophist;   pupil   of    Gorgias;   essayist 

citizen  ; 

and  orator. 

trained  in 

music,  gym- 

nastics, litera- 

ture; pupil 

of  Gorgias. 

(See  p.  97.) 

Cimon,*! 

Athenian  citi- 

Party leader  at  Athens;  naval  com- 

zen of  noble 

mander  and   general.      (See  "  Sum- 

birth. 

maries  of  Events.") 

Myron,*| 

Boeotian;  stud- 

Bronze statues  of  gods  and  Olympian 

ied  with  an 

victors. 

Argive  mas- 

ter-sculptor. 

STUDY    ON    THE    ATHENIAN    LEADERSHIP. 


Name. 

Birth,  Circumstanoe, 
and  Training. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Pericles,* 

Athenian  citi- 

Party leader  and   orator  at  Athens  ; 

zen  of  noble 

general  and  admiral.    (See  "  Summa- 

birth; trained 

ries  of  Events.") 

in  philosophy, 

oratory,  liter- 

ature, gym- 

nastics, music. 

Phidias,* 

Athenian  citi- 

Designs  for  the  Parthenon  and   the 

zen;  studied 

temple  of  Olympian  Zeus  at  Olym- 

with  artists 

pia;    statues   of   Athena   and   Zeus, 

and  sculptors. 

and  the  "Elgin  marbles." 

Pindar,*} 

Theban  citizen 

Odes  in  praise  of  victors  in  the  games  ; 

of  noble 

fragments  of  many  other  lyric  poems. 

family  ; 

Counted  the  foremost  lyric  poet  of 

educated 

Greece. 

in  music 

and  poetry. 

Plato,t 

Citizen  of 

"  Dialogues  "  upon  subjects  of  mental, 

Athens;  pu- 

moral, and  social  philosophy;  phil- 

pil of  Socra- 

osopher. 

tes;  educated 

in  gymnastics, 

poetry,  music. 

Polycletus,t 

Citizen  of  Sicy- 

Statues,  mostly  of  athletes. 

on  ;  pupil  of 

Phidias. 

Polygnotus,t 

Thasian;  of  a 

Interior  painted  decorations  of  temple 

family  of 

of  Theseus  at  Athens,  and  temple  at 

artists,  who 

Delphi;  chief  artist   of    the  famous 

instructed 

"  Painted  Porch  "  at  Athens  ;    chose 

and  trained 

his  subjects  from  Greek  myths. 

him  ;  adopted 

citizen  of 

Athens. 

Praxiteles, 

Athenian.  .  .  . 

Statue  of  Hermes;  portrait-statues  of 

contemporaries;  his  "Marble  Faun" 

is  preserved  in  copies. 

100 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Name. 

Birth,  Circumstance, 
and  Training. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Simonides,*i 

Citizen  of  Ceos, 

Lyric  poet  ;  famous  poems  on  subjects 

of  good  fami- 

connected with  Persian  wars. 

ly  ;  trained  in 

music  and 

poetry. 

Socrates,*t 

Athenian  citi- 

Dialogues with  Athenian  citizens  upon 

zen;  son  of  a 

subjects  of  mental,  moral,  and  social 

sculptor;  stud- 

philosophy, touching  often  upon  the- 

ied sculpture. 

ology. 

Scopas, 

Parian;  of  a 

Engaged  with  three  other  Attic  mas- 

family of  ar- 

ters  on   the  Mausoleum  ;  1  supposed 

tists  ;  worked 

sculptor  of    the   famous    group    of 

in  Athens. 

Niobe  and  her  children. 

Sophocles,* 

Athenian  citizen, 

Author  of    about   seventy   tragedies, 

of  good  fami- 

founded    upon    Greek    myths    and 

ly;  trained  in 

stories,  with  suspected  references  to 

music,  gym- 

contemporary events. 

nastics,  litera- 

ture. 

Themistocles,*t 

Athenian  citizen 

Party   leader  and   orator  at  Athens; 

of  good  fami- 

naval  commander.      (See  "Summa- 

ly ;  trained  in 

ries  of  Events.") 

gymnastics, 

oratory, 

music,  poetry. 

Thucydides,t 

Athenian  citi- 

Historian of  Peloponnesian  war. 

zen  of  good 

family.  .  .  . 

Xenophon, 

Athenian  citi- 

Historian  and   general   of    the   "Re-* 

zen  ;  pupil  of 

treat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  "  ;  -   his- 

Socrates ; 

torian   of    contemporary   and   other 

soldier  of 

Greek  events. 

fortune. 

1  The  monument  raised  by  Artemisia,  queen  of  Caria,  to  her  husband 
Mattsohis.  2  The  retreat  of  ten  thousand  Greeks  employed  by  Cyrus  the 
Younger,  from  near  Babylon  to  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor;  it  was  a  march 
of  nearly  1500  miles,  through  a  hostile  and  unknown  country  (401-400). 


STUDY    ON   THE   ATHENIAN    LEADERSHIP. 


101 


STUDY    ON    3   AND    ON    PICTURES. 

What  seems  to  be  the  centre  of  Greek  greatness  during  this  time  ? 
What  kinds  of  greatness  centred  there?  What  reason  have  \ve  for 
calling  Greek  literature  —  dramatic,  historical,  and  oratorical  —  origi- 
nal? Illustrate  from  each  kind.  •  Name  three  things  that  seem  good 


ZEUS   OP   OTRICOLE. 
Late  Greek  work ;   possibly  after  Phidean  Zeus. 

to  you  about  the  Parthenon  (p.  88) ;  the  Parthenon  frieze  (p.  89) ; 
the  Olympic  Mosaic  (p.  95)  ;  the  head  of  Zeus  (p.  101) ;  the  Venus 
of  Melos  (p.  103). 

Why  should    Demosthenes    be    politically   dangerous    to    Philip? 


102  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

What  are  evident  ideals  of  this  period?  What  gives  material  and 
impulse  to  most  of  the  great  men  of  this  time?  Illustrate  from  sculp- 
ture, architecture,  literature,  politics.  What  relation  do  you  note 
between  training  and  the  "cause  of  fame  "?  To  what  class  do  these 
men  mostly  belong  ?  What  do  you  know  of  free  speech  in  the  Athens 
of  this  period  ?  Looking  over  this  list  and  that  on  p.  51,  what  studies 
do  you  find  included  under  the  name  of  philosophy  ? 

4.    Stories  and  Extracts  Illustrative  of  Period. 

a.     Character  of  Pericles.     (Plutarch.) 

Pericles  was  of  one  of  the  old  Eupatrid  families,  and  trained 
like  the  ordinary  free  Athenian,  in  music,  literature,  oratory, 
and  gymnastics.  Anaxagoras  was  then  in  Athens,  and  this 
man  was  "  the  first  who  clearly  proved  that  the  universe  owed 
its  formation  ...  to  a  pure  .  .  .  mind.  .  .  .  Charmed  with  the 
company  of  this  philosopher,  and  instructed  by  him  in  the 
sublimest  sciences,  Pericles  acquired  not  only  an  elevation  of 
sentiment  and  a  loftiness  and  purity  of  style,  .  .  .  but  likewise 
a  gravit}'  of  countenance  ...  a  firm  and  even  tone  of  voice,  an 
easy  deportment,  and  a  decency  of  dress.  .  .  .  We  are  told, 
there  was  brought  to  Pericles  from  one  of  his  farms  a  ram's 
head  with  only  one  horn  ;  and  Lampo,  the  soothsayer,  observ- 
ing that  the  horn  grew  strong  and  firm  out  of  the  middle  of  the 
forehead,  declared  that  the  two  parties  in  the  state  would  unite 
.  .  .  and  invest  the  power  "  in  Pericles  ;  "  but  Anaxagoras  hav- 
ing dissected  the  head,"  discovered  the  cause  of  this  defect  in 
some  internal  deformity. 

"  Such  was  the  solicitude  of  Pericles,  when  he  had  to  speak 
in  public,  that  he  always  first  addressed  a  prayer  to  the  gods, 
'  That  not  a  word  might  unawares  escape  him  unsuitable  to  the 
occasion.' " 

"As  Cimon  was  his  superior  in  point  of  fortune,  which  he 
employed  in  relieving  the  poor  Athenians,  in  providing  food  for 
the  needy,  and  clothing  the  aged,  and,  besides  this,  levelling 
his  fences  with  the  ground,  that  all  might  be  at  liberty  to  gather 
his  fruit,  Pericles  had  recourse  to  ...  dividing  the  public 
treasure  ...  by  supplying  the  people  with  money  for  theatrical 


STUDY   ON   THE   ATHENIAN    LEADERSHIP.  103 


STATUE  OP  APHRODITE, 

The  so-called  Venus  of  Melos  (Milo) ;  made  in  fifth  century  B.C.  ;  attributed  to 
a  pupil  of  Phidias. 


104  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

diversions  and  for  their  attendance  in  the  courts.  ...  As  for 
the  mechanics  and  meaner  sort  of  people,  they  went  not  with- 
out their  share  of  the  public  money,  nor  yet  did  they  have  it  to 
support  them  in  idleness.  By  the  constructing  of  great  edifices, 
they  had  equal  pretensions  to  be  considered  out  of  the  treasury 
.  .  .  with  the  mariners  and  soldiers.  For  the  different  materials, 
such  as  stone,  brass,  ivory,  gold,  ebony,  and  cypress,  furnished 
employment  to  carpenters,  masons,  brasiers,  goldsmiths,  paint- 
ers, turners,  and  other  artificers ;  the  conveyance  of  them  by 
sea  employed  merchants  and  sailors,  and  by  land,  wheelwrights, 
wagoners,  carriers,  rope-makers,  leather-cutters,  pavers,  and 
iron-founders.  Thus,  by  the  exercise  of  these  different  trades, 
plenty  was  spread  among  persons  of  every  rank  and  condition." 

"Pericles  exerted  all  his  interest  to  have  a  decree  made, 
appointing  a  prize  for  the  best  performer  in  music,  during  the 
Panathencea  ;  l  and  as  he  "was  himself  appointed  judge  and 
distributor  of  prizes,  he  gave  the  contending  artists  directions 
in  what  manner  to  proceed,  whether  their  performance  was 
vocal,  or  on  the  lute  or  lyre." 

"  The  orators  of  the  opposite  party  raised  a  clamour  against 
Pericles,  asserting  that  he  wasted  the  public  treasure,  and 
brought  the  revenue  to  nothing.  Pericles,  in  his  defence,  asked 
the  people  in  full  assembly,  '  Whether  they  thought  he  had 
spent  too  much?'  Upon  their  answering  in  the  affirmative, 
4  Then  be  it,'  said  he,  '  charged  to.  my  account,  not  yours  ;  but 
let  the  new  edifices  be  inscribed  with  my  name,  not  that  of  the 
people  of  Athens.'"  Whereupon  "they  cried  out,  'That  he 
might  spend  as  much  as  he  pleased  of  the  public  treasure, 
without  sparing  it  in  the  least.' " 

******* 

"Money  could  not  bribe  him;  he  was  so  much  above  the 
(fesire  of  it,  that  though  he  added  greatly  to  the  opulence  of 
the  state,  which  he  found  not  inconsiderable,  and  though  his 
power  exceeded  that  of  many  kings  and  tyrants,  some  of  whom 
have  bequeathed  to  their  posterity  the  sovereignty  they  had 
1  The  Athenian  festival  in  honor  of  Athena. 


STUDY   ON   THE   ATHENIAN   LEADERSHIP.  105 

obtained,  yet  he  added  not  one  drachma1  to  his  paternal  estate." 
His  family,  indeed,  "complained  of  a  pittance  daily  measured 
out  with  scrupulous  economy." 

In  the  early  part  of  the  Lacedaemonian  War,  Pericles  was 
opposed  to  the  people  at  Athens,  but  remained  firm  "  notwith- 
standing the  importunity  of  his  friends  and  the  threats  and 
accusations  of  his  enemies,  and  notwithstanding  the  many 
scoffs  and  songs  sung  to  vilify  his  character  as  a  general." 

When  about  to  set  sail  on  a  naval  expedition,  "  there  hap- 
pened an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  This  sudden  darkness  was  looked 
upon  as  an  unfavorable  omen,  and  threw  the  crews  into  the 
greatest  consternation.  Pericles,  observing  that  the  pilot  was 
much  astonished  and  perplexed,  took  his  cloak,  and  having 
covered  his  eyes  with  it,  asked  him,  'If  he  found  anything 
terrible  in  that,  or  considered  it  as  a  bad  presage?'  Upon  his 
answering  in  the  negative,  he  said,  '  Where  is  the  difference 
then  between  this  and  the  other,  except  that  something  bigger 
than  my  cloak  causes  the  eclipse?'"  When  dying,  Pericles  said 
that  the  greatest  and  most  honorable  part  of  his  character  was 
that  no  Athenian,  through  his  means,  ever  put  on  mourning. 

STUDY    ON    a. 

Make  a  list  of  the  qualities  and  characteristics  of  Pericles  How 
many  of  these  helped  him  attain  and  keep  his  power  in  Athens? 
How  did  each  do  this  ?  Which  of  these  were  virtues  ?  How  else  did 
he  gain  and  keep  power  ?  Did  he  use  any  means  of  which  you  dis- 
approve ?  Why  do  you  disapprove  ?  What  do  we  learn  of  the  state 
of  religious  belief  in  Athens  from  these  anecdotes  ?  What  was  the 
attitude  of  Pericles  toward  religion?  of  Anaxagoras?  What  do  they 
teach  us  of  the  Athenian  people  ?  In  what  ways  did  Pericles  improve 
the  condition  of  the  common  people  ?  Of  what  use  was  this  to 
Athens?  To  the  world? 

b.  From  the  Funeral  Speech  of  Pericles  over  the  First  Dead  in 
the  Peloponnesian  War.  (Thucydides,  Jowett's  translation.) 
"  But  while  the  law  secures  equal  justice  to  all  alike  in  their 

private  disputes,  the  claim  of  excellence  is  also  recognized  ; 
1  About  18  cents. 


106  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

and  when  a  citizen  is  in  anyway  distinguished,  he  is  preferred 
to  the  public  service,  not  as  a  matter  of  privilege,  but  as  a 
reward  of  merit.  ...  And  we  have  not  forgotten  to  provide  for 
our  weary  spirits  many  relaxations  from  toil ;  we  have  our  reg- 
ular games  and  sacrifices  throughout  the  year ;  at  home  the 
style  of  our  life  is  refined  ;  and  the  delight  which  we  daily  feel 
in  all  these  things  helps  to  banish  melancholy.  Because  of  the 
greatness  of  our  city,  the  fruits  of  the  whole  earth  flow  in  upon 
us  ;  so  that  we  enjoy  the  goods  of  other  countries  as  freely  as 
of  our  own.  .  .  . 

"  And  in  the  matter  of  education,  whereas  our  adversaries 
from  early  youth  are  always  undergoing  laborious  exercises 
which  are  to  make  them  brave,  we  live  at  ease,  and  yet  are 
equally  ready  to  face  the  perils  which  they  face.  .  .  . 

"If  then  we  prefer  to  meet  danger  with  a  light  heart  but 
without  laborious  training,  and  with  a  courage  which  is 
gained  by  habit  and  not  enforced  by  law,  are  we  not  greatly 
the  gainers  ? 

"  "We  are  lovers  of  the  beautiful,  yet  simple  in  our  tastes, 
and  we  cultivate  the  mind  without  loss  of  manliness.  Wealth 
we  employ,  not  for  talk  and  ostentation,  but  when  there  is  a 
real  use  for  it.  To  avow  poverty  with  us  is  no  disgrace ;  the 
true  disgrace  is  in  doing  nothing  to  avoid  it.  An  Athenian 
citizen  does  not  neglect  the  state  because  he  takes  care  of  his 
own  household ;  and  even  those  of  us  who  are  engaged  in  busi- 
ness have  a  very  fair  idea  of  politics.  We  alone  regard  a  man 
who  takes  no  interest  in  public  affairs,  not  as  a  harmless  but  as 
a  useless  character.  .  .  . 

"  To  sum  up  :  I  say  that  Athens  is  the  school  of  Hellas,  and 
that  the  individual  Athenian  in  his  own  person  seems  to  have 
the  power  of  adapting  himself  to  the  most  Varied  forms  of 
action  with  the  utmost  versatility  and  grace.  .  .  . 

"  I  would  have  you  day  by  day  fix  your  eyes  upon  the  great- 
ness of  Athens,  until  you  become  filled  with  the  love  of  her ; 
and  when  you  are  impressed  by  the  spectacle  of  her  glory, 
reflect  that  this  empire  has  been  acquired  by  men  who  knew 


STUDY   ON  THE  ATHENIAN   LEADERSHIP.  107 

their  duty  and  had  the  courage  to  do  it,  who  in  the  hour  of  con- 
flict had  the  fear  of  dishonor  always  present  to  them...  .  . 

k '  For  the  whole  earth  is  a  sepulchre  of  famous  men  ;  not  only 
are  they  commemorated  by  columns  and  inscriptions  in  their 
own  country,  but  in  foreign  lands  there  dwells  also  an  un- 
written memorial  of  them,  graven  not  on  stone  but  in  the 
hearts  of  men.  Make  them  your  examples,  and,  esteeming 
courage  to  be  freedom  and  freedom  to  be  happiness,  do  not 
weigh  too  nicely  the  perils  of  war.  .  .  ." 

STUDY  ON  b. 

Describe  the  Athenian  ideal  of  character  as  shown  in  the  "  Speech 
of  Pericles."  With  whom  does  he  contrast  Athens  in  the  matter  of 
education  ?  In  what  particulars  do  you  think  the  general  American 
ideal  of  life  agrees  with  the  Athenian  ?  Disagrees  ?  On  the  whole, 
which  ideal  do  you  think  preferable  ?  What  does  Pericles  mean  by 
saying  that  "the  whole  earth  is  a  sepulchre  of  famous  men"?  How 
is  it  illustrated  by  Greek  history  ? 

c.    The  Defence  and  Death  of  Socrates. 

Xenophon  tells  us  that  Socrates,  the  Athenian  philosopher, 
was  condemned  to  death  on  the  following  indictment :  — 

"  Socrates  offends  against  the  laws  in  not  paying  respect  to 
those  gods  whom  the  city  respects,  and  introducing  other  new 
deities ;  he  also  offends  against  the  laws  in  corrupting  the 
youth." 

When  brought  before  his  accusers  he  defended  himself  as 
follows  (Plato,  Jowett's  translation)  :  — 

"  Let  the  event  be  as  God  wills  ;  in  obedience  to  the  law  I 
make  my  defense.  .  .  . 

"  Some  one  will  say  :  And  are  you  not  ashamed,  Socrates,  of 
a  course  of  life  which  is  likely  to  bring  you  to  an  untimely  end  ? 
To  him  I  may  fairly  answer :  There  }'ou  are  mistaken  :  a  man 
who  is  good  for  anything  ought  not  to  calculate  the  chance  of 
living  or  dying ;  he  ought  only  to  consider  whether  in  doing 
anything  he  is  doing  right  or  wrong,  —  acting  the  part  of  a  good 
man  or  a  bad.  .  .  . 


108  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

"If  you  say  to  me,  Socrates,  this  time  we  will  not  mind 
Anytus,  and  will  let  you  off,  but  upon  one  condition,  that  you 
are  not  to  enquire  and  speculate  in  this  way  any  more,  and 
that  if  you  are  caught  doing  this  again  you  shall  die,  —  if  this 
were  the  condition  on  which  you  let  me  go,  I  should  reply  :  Men 
of  Athens,  I  honor  and  love  you ;  but  I  shall  obey  God  rather 
than  you,  and  while  I  have  life  and  strength  I  shall  never  cease 
from  the  practise  and  teaching  of  philosophy,  exhorting  any 
one  whom  I  meet  after  my  manner,  and  convincing  him,  saying  : 
O  my  friend,  why  do  you  who  are  a  citizen  of  the  great  and 
mighty  and  wise  city  of  Athens,  care  so  much  about  laying  up 
the  greatest  amount  of  money  and  honor  and  reputation,  and 
so  little  about  wisdom  and  truth  and  the  greatest  improvement 
of  the  soul,  which  you  never  regard  or  heed  at  all  ?  .  .  . 

"  I  tell  you  that  virtue  is  not  given  by  money,  but  that  from 
virtue  come  money  and  every  good  of  man,  public  as  well  as 
private.  This  is  my  teaching  ;  and  if  this  is  the  doctrine  which 
corrupts  the  youth,  my  influence  is  ruinous  indeed.  .  .  . 

"  I  do  believe  that  there  are  gods,  and  in  a  far  higher  sense 
than  that  in  which  any  of  my  accusers  believe  in  them.  And 
to  you  and  to  God  I  commit  my  cause,  to  be  determined  by 
you  as  is  best  for  you  and  me.  ..." 

Then  followed  the  voting  for  and  against  the  condemnation 
of  Socrates,  and  by  a  very  small  majority  he  was  condemned 
to  death.  After  this  Socrates  still  continued;  "...  Now  I 
depart  hence,  condemned  by  you  to  suffer  the  penalty  of  death, 
and  my  accusers,  too,  go  their  ways  condemned  by  truth  to 
suffer  the  penalty  of  villainy  and  wrong :  and  I  must  abide  by 
my  reward  —  let  them  abide  by  theirs.  .  .  . 

"  "We  shall  see  that  there  is  great  reason  to  hope  that  death 
is  a  good,  for  one  of  two  things :  either  death  is  a  state  of 
nothingness  and  utter  unconsciousness,  or,  as  men  say,  there 
is  a  change  and  migration  of  the  soul  from  this  world  to 
another.  .  .  . 

"  Wherefore,  O  judges,  be  of  good  cheer  about  death,  and 
know  this  of  a  truth  —  that  no  evil  can  happen  to  a  good  man, 


STUDY   OF   THE   ATHENIAN   LEADERSHIP.  109 

either  in  life  or  after  death.  He  and  his  are  not  neglected  by 
the  gods  ;  nor  has  my  own  approaching  end  happened  by  mere 
chance.  But  I  see  clearly  that  to  die  and  be  released  was 
better  for  me  ;  and  therefore  the  oracle  gave  no  sign.  .  .  . 

"  The  hour  of  departure  has  arrived,  and  we  go  our  ways  —  I 
to  die,  you  to  live.  Which  is  better,  God  only  knows.  ..." 

Socrates  was  then  taken  to  prison,  whither  his  disciples  often 
came.  On  the  morning  of  their  last  meeting,  Socrates  is  said 
to  have  spoken  thus:  "'I  have  good  hope  that  there  is  yet 
something  remaining  for  the  dead,  and  as  has  been  said  of  old, 
some  far  better  thing  for  the  good  than  for  the  evil.  .  .  . 

' '  '  Then  the  foolishness  of  the  body  will  be  cleared  away,  and 
we  shall  be  pure  and  hold  converse  with  other  pure  souls,  and 
know  of  ourselves  the  clear  light  everywhere  ;  and  this  is  surely 
the  light  of  truth.  For  no  impure  thing  is  allowed  to  approach 
the  pure.  .  .  .  But  then,  O  my  friends,'  he  said,  '  if  the  soul 
is  really  immortal,  what  care  should  be  taken  of  her,  not  only  in 
respect  of  the  portion  of  time  which  is  called  life,  but  of  eter- 
nity !  And  the  danger  of  neglecting  her  from  this  point  of 
view  does  indeed  appear  to  be  awful.  If  death  had  only  been 
the  end  of  all,  the  wicked  would  have  had  a  good  bargain  in 
dying,  for  they  would  have  begn  happily  quit,  not  only  of  their 
body,  but  of  their  own  evil  together  with  their  souls.  But 
now,  as  the  soul  plainly  appears  to  be  immortal,  there  is  no 
release  or  salvation  from  evil  except  the  attainment  of  the 
highest  virtue  and  wisdom.  .  .  .  Wherefore,  .  .  .  what  ought 
we  not  to  do  in  order  to  obtain  virtue  and  wisdom  in  life  ?  Fair 
is  the  prize  and  the  hope  great.'  .  .  .  Soon  the  jailer  entered 
.  .  .  and  handed  the  cup  to  Socrates,  who  in  the  easiest  and 
gentlest  manner,  without  the  least  fear  or  change  of  color  or 
feature,  looking  at  the  man  with  all  his  eyes,  as  his  manner 
was,  took  the  cup  and  said :  '  What  do  you  say  about  making 
the  libation  out  of  this  cup  to  any  god  ?  May  I  or  not  ? '  The 
man  answered  :  '  We  only  prepare,  Socrates,  just  so  much  as 
we  deem  enough.'  'I  understand,'  he  said,  'yet  I  may  and 
must  pray  to  the  gods  to  prosper  my  journey  from  this  to  that 


110  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

other  world.     May  this  then,  which  is  my  prayer,  be  granted 
to  me.' 

"Then  holding  the  cup  to  his  lips,  quite  readily  and  cheer- 
fully he  drank  off  the  poison." 

STUDY  ON  c. 

What  qualities  of  character  did  Socrates  show  in  his  defence? 
What  were  his  religious  beliefs?  How  far  were  they  like  ours? 
How  far  different  ?  Why  was  the  religious  belief  of  a  man  a  matter 
of  political  importance  in  a  Greek  state  ?  What  was  Socrates'  ideal 
of  life?  What  proof  can  you  give  that  Socrates  had  a  large  Athenian 
following?  What  qualities  of  character  did  Socrates  show  in  his 
death? 

d.    Quotations  from  the  Tragedians. 

'  '  The  lips  of  Zeus  know  not  to  speak  a  lying  speech, 
But  will  perform  each  single  word."  — 


"  Nor  did  I  deem  thy  edicts  strong  enough 
That  thou,  a  mortal  man,  should'st  overpass 
The  unwritten  laws  of  God  that  know  not  change." 

—  Sophocles. 

t 

'  '  Let  those  who  live  do  right  ere  death  descendeth  ; 
The  dead  are  dust;  mere  nought  to  nothing  tendeth." 

******* 

'  '  For  mere  high  birth  I  have  small  meed  of  praise  ; 
The  good  man  in  my  sight  is  nobly  born." 

******* 

"  For  men  of  courage  and  of  virtuous  soul, 
Though  born  of  slaves,  are  far  above  vain  titles." 

******* 

"  There  are  three  virtues  to  observe,  my  son  : 
Honour  the  gods,  the  parents  that  begot  you, 
The  laws  of  Hellas.     Follow  these, 
And  you  will  win  the  fairest  crown  of  honour." 


STUDY   ON   THE   ATHENIAN  LEADERSHIP.  Ill 

"  For  when  the  rabble  is  strong  and  falling  into  rage,  it  is  as 
hard  to  quell  as  a  fierce  fire.     But  if  one  quietly  yield,  watch- 
ing well  his  chance,  perhaps  it  may  spend  the  fury  of  its  blasts 
and  give  you  your  own  way  as  much  as  you  please.     For  pity 
and  passion  are  alike  inherent  in  the   masses,  giving  excellent 
advantage  to  one  who  carefully  watches  his  opportunity." 
******* 
"The  populace  is  a  terrible  thing  when   it  has  evil  leaders; 
but  when  it  has  good  ones,  it  always  deliberates  well." 

******* 
"  God  rules  as  he  wills  the  events  that  happen  to  mortals." 

******* 
"  I  think  not  that  any  of  the  gods  is  bad." 

******* 
"  This  is  more  noble,  my  son,  to  honour  equality,  which  ever 
links  friends  with  friends  and  states  with  states  and  allies  with 
allies  ;  for  equality  is  sanctioned  by  law  among  men." 

******* 
"  Why   dost   thoti   honor   so   unboundedly   that    prosperous 
injustice,  royalty,  and  think  so  highly  of  her?  " 

******* 
"  All  the  life  of  man  is  full  of  pain,  nor  is  there  any  respite 
from  our  toil ;  but  whatever  state  there  may  be  better  than  this 
is  hid  in  shrouding  clouds  of  darkness.  Fond,  indeed,  we  seem 
of  this  glittering  earthly  life  through  want  of  trial  of  any  other 
and  through  want  of  proof  of  what  there  is  beneath  the  ground." 

*  *  *  *'*  *  * 

' '  Confidence  is  seated  in  my  soul  that  the  man  who  reveres 
the  gods  will  fare  prosperously." 

******* 
"His  state  is  easiest  whose  wife  is  settled  in  his  house,  a 
cipher.  ...    A  wise  woman  I  detest ;  may  there  not  be  in  my 
house,  at  least,  a  woman  more  highly  gifted  with  mind  than 
women  ought  to  be." 


112  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

u  Silence  and  modesty  are  best  for  a  woman,  remaining 
quietly  within."  —  Euripides. 

e.    From  the  Comedies  of  Aristophanes.    (Frere's  translation.) 

"  Demus  [the  personified  Athenian  people].  Why,  sure,  you 
don't  believe  in  the  gods. 

Nicias.    I  do. 

Dem.    But  what's  your  argument?     Where's  your  proof  ? 

Nic.  Because  I  feel  they  persecute  and  hate  me  ;  in  spite  of 
everything  I  try  to  please  'em. 

Dem.    Well,  well.     That's  true  ;  you're  right  enough  in  that. 

In  the  following  extract  Aristophanes  personifies  the  Athenian 
Ecdesia :  — 

"He's  a  man  in  years. 

A  kind  of  a  bean-fed,  husky,  testy  character, 
Choleric  and  brutal  at  times,  and  partly  deaf." 

In  this  same  play,  the  "  Knights,"  the  following  conversation 
occurs  between  a  sausage-seller  and  a  leading  demagogue  :  — 

"  S.S.  Are  there  any  means  of  making  a  great  man 
Of  a  sausage-selling  fellow  such  as  I? 

Dem.  The  very  means  you  have  must  make  you  so. 
Low  breeding,  vulgar  birth,  and  impudence,  — 
These,  these  must  make  ye  what  ye're  meant  to  be. 

Tell  me  truly  :  are  ye  allied 
To  the  families  of  the  gentry  ? 

S.S.  Naugh,  not  I ; 

I'm  come  from  a  common,  ordinary  kindred, 
Of  the  lower  order. 

Dem.  What  a  happiness  ! 

What  a  footing  will  it  give  ye  !     What  a  ground-work 
For  confidence  and  favor  at  your  outset ! 

S.S.  But  bless  ye  !  Only  consider  my  education  ! 
I  can  but  barely  read,  —  in  a  kind  of  a  way. 

Dem..  That  makes  against  ye  !  —  The  only  thing  against  ye, — 
The  being  able  to  read  in  any  way." 


STUDY  ON  PERIOD  431-338.  113 

STUDY  ON  d  AND  e. 

What  do  the  extracts  from  Euripides  and  Aristophanes  show  of  the 
political  faults  of  Athens?  Illustrate  from  the  Athenian  history. 
What  political  virtues  do  they  refer  to  ?  What  three  religious  tenden- 
cies appear  in  these  extracts  and  in  the  account  of  Socrates?  What 
do  these  extracts  tell  us  of  social  life  ? 

In  General.  —  Why  is  the  Age  of  Pericles  thought  so  great  ?  Why 
should  not  such  an  age  have  come  to  Sparta?  What  reasons  can  you 
find  for  its  coming  to  Athens  ? 


E.F.     STUDY    ON   PEEIOD    431-338.  —  Prom   Opening   of   the 
Peloponnesian  War  to  the  Battle  of  Ohseronea, 

Chief  contemporary  authorities :  Xenophon,  Demosthe- 
nes, Isocrates,  Plato. 

Other  chief  original  authorities :  Plutarch,  Diodorus. 
Chief  modern  authorities :  Grote  and  Curtius. 

1.   Summary  of  Principal  Political,  Military,  and  Naval 
Events,  431-362. 

Peloponnesian  War,  carried  on  with  varying 
fortunes  and  with  various  combinations  of  the 
Greek  states  under  the  opposing  leaderships  of 
Sparta  and  Athens.  Now  a  city  revolts  or  changes  sides, 
now  enters,  now  withdraws  from,  the  conflict.  Persian 
money  often  helps  the  Spartan  allies. 

In  405  occurs  the  battle  of  JEgospotami;  the  fleet  of 
the  Athenians  is  completely  defeated,  and  the  states 
formerly  allied  with  and  subject  to  her  submit  to  Sparta. 
Athens  herself  holds  out,  though  without  allies  and  ill- 
provisioned. 

The  Athenians,  perishing  of  famine,  accede  to 
the  following  demands  of  the  Lacedaemonians : 
the  tearing  down  of  their  walls,  the  surrender  of 


114  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

all  their  ships  but  twelve,  and  the  taking  back  of  their 
exiles;  they  shall,  moreover,  have  the  same  friends  and 
foes  as  the  Lacedaemonians,  and  "follow  by  land  and  by 
sea  wherever  they  may  lead."  The  Athenian  democracy 
is  now  overthrown  by  the  help  of  Sparta,  and  an  oligarchy 
of  thirty,  known  as  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  is  established. 
These  first  expel  or  execute  the  democratic  leaders,  confis- 
cate their  property,  and  finally  disarm  and  exclude  from 
Athenian  privilege  and  protection  all  but  3,000  citizens, 
chosen  by  themselves.  They  also  forbid  any  sophist  to 
teach  in  Athens. 

The  exiles  return  and  attack  Athens;  the  Spartan  king 
interferes,  expels  the  Thirty  on  account  of  their  atrocities, 
restores  the  exiles.  The  Athenians,  meeting  now  in  full 
assembly,  vote  back  a  democracy,  declare  a  general  am- 
nesty for  all  save  the  most  conspicuous  oligarchs,  and 
decree  a  revision  and  publication  of  the  Athenian  laws. 

The  Persians  attack  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  who 
are  under  Spartan  protection ;  war  between  Per- 
sia and  Sparta ;  Rhodes  revolts  from  the  Spartan 
leadership ;  Corinth,  Thebes,  and  Athens  refuse  her  any 
aid,  and  finally  themselves  attack  her.  In  394,  at  the 
battle  of  Cnidus,  the  Persians  overthrow  the  naval  power 
of  Sparta,  and  release  from  her  power  the  cities  of  the 
^Egaean.  War  is  made  on  Sparta  by  Thebes, 
Athens,  Argos,  and  Corinth ;  it  ends  by  the 
"  Peace  of  Antalcidas,"  which  is  composed  at 
the  Persian  court  by  Spartan  request,  and  sent  to  Greece 
for  the  cities  to  sign.  This  peace  reads  as  follows :  — 

"  Artaxerxes,  the  king,  thinks  it  right  that  the  cities  in 
Asia  .  .  .  should  belong  to  himself,  and  that  he  should  leave 
the  other  Greek  cities,  small  and  great,  free.  .  .  .  Whichsoever 
of  the  two  parties  does  not  assent  to  those  terms  of  peace,  I 


STUDY   ON  PERIOD  431-338.  115 

myself,  in  conjunction  with  those  who  receive  them,  will  make 
war  upon  that  party  both  by  land  and  by  sea,  both  with  ships 
and  with  money." 

Growing  dissatisfaction  of  Greeks  with  Sparta ; 
Spartans' expelled  from  Thebes;  Persians  dis- 
tribute money  among  the  Greeks  to  help  them 
against  Sparta. 

Athens  and  Thebes,  in  alliance,  lead  in  a  war 
against  Sparta.  At  the  battle  of  Leuctra  the 
Spartan  military  power  on  land  is  broken  by 
Thebes ;  Sparta  is  compelled  to  withdraw  her  officers 
and  garrisons  from  all  the  Greek  cities,  and  leave  them 
independent. 

Many  of  the  Greek  cities  now  ally  themselves 
with  Thebes,  who  leads  in  war  against  Sparta, 
Epaminondas  being  the  Theban  general. 

STUDY  ON   I. 

Why  should  the  Persians  help  Sparta  rather  than  Athens  in  the 
Peloponnesian  War  ?  Why  should  the  battle  of  JEgospotami  decide 
this  war  for  Athens  ?  Why  should  "  the  Thirty  "  forbid  any  sophist 
to  teach  in  Athens  ?  Remark  upon  the  proceedings  of  "  the  Thirty  " 
as  compared  with  those  of  the  restored  Athenian  democracy.  What 
power  has  Persia  to  dictate  terms  of  peace  ?  What  is  the  attitude 
of 'the  various  states  towards  Sparta?  Prove  it.  "Towards  Persia? 
Prove  it. 

2.  Summary  of  Leading  Events,  362-338. 

Conquests  of  Philip  of  Macedon  in  Thrace,  Illy- 
ria,  and  along  the  northern  coast  of  the  ^Egean ; 
in  spite  of  Athenian  opposition,  he  conquers  the 
Greek  towns  of  Chalcidice.  He  threatens  the  Hellespont 
and  Chersonese.  Meanwhile  a  Sacred  War  goes  on,  in 
which  various  Greek  states,  led  by  Thebes,  war  on  Phocis, 
because  the  Amphictyony  has  accused  her  of  desecrating, 
by  cultivation,  a  part  of  the  sacred  fields  of  Delphi.  Philip 


TO 
346. 


116  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

declares  himself  the  champion  of  Apollo,  wins  Delphi  from 
the  Phocians,  and  in  return  gains  a  seat  and  two  votes  in 
the  Amphictyonic  council,  in  spite  of  strong  objections 
on  the  part  of  the  Athenians. 

Difficulties  and  ill-feeling  between  those  Athen- 
ians who  favor  and  those  who  oppose  Philip. 
The  latter  party  is  led  by  the  orator  Demosthe- 
nes. Philip  enters  Thrace  and  advances  on  Chersonese; 
the  Athenians  defend  their  threatened  allies  against  him, 
roused  to  activity  by  the  third  Philippic  of  Demosthenes, 
in  which  he  says  :  — 

' '  I  observe  that  .  .  .  you  have  conceded  Philip  a  right,  which 
in  former  times  has  been  the  subject  of  contest  in  every  Grecian 
war.  And  what  is  this?  The  right  of  doing  what  he  pleases, 
openly  fleecing  and  pillaging  the  Greeks,  one  after  another, 
attacking  and  enslaving  their  cities.  You  were  at  the  head  of 
the  Greeks  for  seventy-three  vears,  the  Lacedaemonians  for 
twenty-nine  ;  and  the  Thebans  had  some  power  in  these  latter 
times  after  the  battle  of  Leuctra.  Yet  neither  of  you,  my 
countrymen,  nor  Thebans,  nor  Lacedaemonians ,  were  ever 
licensed  by  the  Greeks  to  act  as  you  please ;  far  otherwise. 
When  you,  or  rather  the  Athenians  of  that  time,  appeared  to 
be  dealing  harshly  with  certain  people,  all  the  rest,  even  such 
as  had  no  complaint  against  Athens,  thought  proper  to  side 
with  the  injured  parties  in  a  war  against  her.  .  .  .  Yet  all  the 
faults  committed  by  the  "Spartans  in  those  thirty  years,  and  by 
our  ancestors  in  seventy,  are  fewer,  men  of  Athens,  than  the 
wrongs  which,  in  the  less  than  thirteen  years  that  Philip  has 
been  uppermost,  he  has  inflicted  on  the  Greeks :  .  .  .  What  is 
the  condition  of  Thessaly  ?  Has  he  not  taken  away  her  consti- 
tutions and  the  governments  of  her  cities  ?  .  .  .  Are  not  the 
Eubcean  states  governed  now  by  despots,  and  that  in  an  island 
near  to  Thebes  and  Athens?  Does  he  not  expressly  write  in 
his  epistles,  '  I  am  at  peace  with  those  who  are  willing  to  obey 
me'?  .  .  .  And  we,  the  Greek  community,  seeing  and  hearing 


STUDY   OF    PERIOD   431-338.  117 

this,  instead  of  sending  embassies  to  one  another  about  it  and 
expressing  indignation,  are  in  such  a  miserable  state,  so  in- 
trenched in  our  separate  towns,  that  to  this  day  we  can  attempt 
nothing  that  interest  or  necessity  requires  ;  we  cannot  combine 
or  form  any  association  for  succor  and  alliance  ;  we  look  uncon- 
cernedly on  the  man's  growing  power,  each  resolving,  methinks, 
to  enjoy  the  interval  that  another  is  destroyed  in,  neither  caring 
nor  striving  for  the  salvation  of  Greece. 

******* 
"  First,  let  us  prepare  for  our  own  defense  ;  provide  ourselves, 
I  mean,  with  ships,  money,  and  troops  ;  for  surely,  though  all 
other  people  consented  to  be  slaves,  we  at  least  ought  to  struggle 
for  freedom.  When  we  have  completed  our  own  preparations 
and  made  them  apparent  to  the  Greeks,  then  let  us  invite  the 
rest,  and  send  our  embassadors  every  where  .  .  .  to  Peloponnesus, 
to  Rhodes,  to  Chios,  to  the  king.  .  .  .  This  work  belongs  to  you  ; 
"this  privilege  your  ancestors  bequeathed  to  you,  the  prize  of 
many  perilous  exertions." 

The  Locrians  are  accused  by  the  Amphictyony 
of  cultivating  the  sacred  plain  of  Apollo ;  war  is 
declared  against  them  and  Philip  elected  general. 
Thebans  and  Athenians  decline  to  join  under  his  lead. 
Philip  conquers  the  Theban  and  Athenian  forces  in  the 
battle  of  Chceronea ;  he  calls  a  congress  of  Greeks  at 
Corinth  to  settle  their  common  affairs;  there  war  is  pro- 
posed and  declared  against  Persia,  for  which  each  Greek 
state  is  to  furnish  men  or  ships,  while  Philip  is  to  be  their 
captain-general.  From  this  time  to  146  B.C.,  in  spite  of 
many  struggles  and  much  confusion,  Greece  is  under 
Macedonian  leadership  or  supremacy. 

STUDY  ON   2. 

Name  in  order  the  states  which  lead  the  Greeks  after  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War.  How  in  each  instance  is  the  leadership  obtained? 
What  is  the  general  condition  of  affairs  among  the  Greek  states  from 


118  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

439  to  338?  The  battle  of  Chseronea  is  often  held  to  mark  the  fall  of 
Greece.  Why  ?  What  seem  to  you  to  be  the  causes  of  that  fall  ? 
Why  does  Greece  fall  into  the  hand  of  the  Macedonian  and  not  into 
that  of  the  Persian  ?  How  might  this  fall  have  been  averted  ?  By 
what  change  in  organization  ?  In  spirit  ?  Illustrate  or  remark  on  each 
paragraph  taken  from  Demosthenes. 

STUDY  ON  GENERAL  COURSE  OF  GREEK  HISTORY. 

What  characterizes  Greek  political  history?  What  state  appears 
as  the  champion  of  Pan-hellenism  ?  Give  instances.  What  is  the 
application  of  the  motto  on  p.  32?  How  does  each  Homeric  ideal 
develop  in  later  history  ?  What  relation  between  the  Homeric  ideals 
and  the  development  of  the  Greek  character  ?  Why  does  that  char- 
acter develop  so  differently  in  different  places  ?  How  does  it  come  to 
vary  so  widely  in  Athens  ? 


STUDY    ON    THE   HELLENISTIC    KINGDOMS.  119 


THE    HELLENISTIC    OR   ALEXANDRIAN    CON- 
QUESTS   AND  KINGDOMS,  338-146   B.C. 

"  Think  of  the  crowds  of  Dionysiac  artists,  and  their  joyous  wandering 
life,  the  festivals  and  games  of  old  and  new  Greek  cities,  even  in  the 
far  East,  to  which  are  gathered  from  afar  festive  spectators  in  a  common 
worship.  As  far  as  the  colonies  on  the  Indus  and  Jaxartes,  the  Greek  has 
kinsmen  and  finds  countrymen. '.  .  .  Science  orders  into  system  the  marvel- 
lous traditions  of  the  Babylonians,  Egyptians,  and  Hindoos,  and  strives, 
from  a  comparison  of  them,  to  gain  new  results.  All  these  streams  of 
civilization  .  .  .  are  now  united  in  the  cauldron  of  Hellenistic  culture." 

—  DROYSEN. 

No  contemporary  authority,  aside  from  existing  monu- 
ments, the  most  famous  of  these  being  the  remains  and  the 
sculptures  found  at  Pergamos ;  chief  original  authorities  : 
Arrian  and  Plutarch. 

Chief  modern  authorities  accessible  in  English :  Grote, 
Thirlwall,  Finlay. 

Chronological  Summary  of  Important  Events  in  the 
Hellenistic  World,  338  B.C.  to  Period  of  Roman 
Dominion* 

On  the  death  of  Philip,  Alexander  is  chosen  in 
a  congress  of  the  Greek  states  at  Corinth,  as 
general-in-chief  of  the  Greek  forces  against  the 
Persian.  Thebes  revolts  against  him  and  is  subdued, 
Sparta  remains  independent.  He  receives  the  nominal 
sanction  of  Delphi  for  his  enterprise. 

Alexander  crosses  the  Hellespont,  and  follows  the  route 
indicated  in  the  map  (see  p.  74) ;  at  Troy  he  offers 
sacrifices  and  honors  to  the  Greek  heroes  of  the  Trojan 
War,  and  raises  altars  to  Zeus,  Heracles,  and  Athena.  At 
the  Granicus,  he  wins  a  victory  over  the  Persians ;  from 


120  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

the  spoils  he  sends  three  hundred  suits  of  armor  to  be 
dedicated  to  Athena,  in  the  Acropolis ;  Phrygia  and  Sardis 
submit.  Alexander  proclaims  liberty  to  the  Lydians,  and 
restores  the  democratic  government  of  Ephesus.  Con- 
tinued success  along  the  coast. 

Battle  at  Issus.  —  Alexander  meets  Darius, 
king  of  Persia,  and  destroys  his  army;  Darius, 
escaping  to  Babylon,  raises  a  second ;  Damascus 
and  Sidon  submit  to  Alexander,  who  wins  Tyre  by  a  diffi- 
cult siege ;  he  gains  the  submission  of  Egypt  and  founds 
Alexandria.  On  his  return  to  Phoenicia,  he  celebrates 
festivals  and  contests  in  the  Greek  style.  Thence  he 
starts  for  Babylon,  meets  Darius  at  Arbela,  thoroughly 
defeats  him,  and  becomes  the  master  of  the  Persian  Em- 
pire ;  he  apportions  its  satrapies  to  his  followers  or  friends ; 
occupies  Susa  and  Persepolis. 

Alexander    marches    eastward,   receiving   the 


33O 

TO  submission  of  the  tribes,  and  founding  cities ; 
i — — — I  pressing  through  mountain  passes,  crossing  des- 
erts and  rivers,  he  reaches  India.  The  soldiers  refuse  to 
go  further.  Alexander  offers  sacrifice  and  finds  the  omens 
unpropitious  ;  erects  altars  to  the  great  Greek  gods  and 
starts  homeward.  He  prepares  a  fleet,  which  coasts  the 
Indian  Ocean  from  the  Indus  to  the  Euphrates,  through 
waters  before  unknown  to  Europeans.  On  his  return  to 
Susa  he  marries  the  daughter  of  Darius,  and  about  ten 
thousand  Macedonians  also  take  Persian  wives.  He  goes 
to  Babylon  and  prepares  to  circumnavigate  Arabia  and 
explore  the  Euphrates;  but  dies  from  the  effect  of  a 
drunken  revel. 

Wars  of   the  generals  of    Alexander  for  the 
right  of  dominion  over  his  empire.      In   301  is 
fought  the  battle    of   Ipsus,  in   Phrygia,  which 
finally  settles  the  division  of  the  Alexandrian  or  Hellen- 


STUDY   ON   THE   HELLENISTIC    KINGDOMS.  121 

istic  kingdoms :  the  chief  of  these  are  Egypt,  which  falls 
to  the  Ptolemies;  Syria  under  the  Seleucidce ;  Pergamos, 
in  the  north-western  part  of  Asia  Minor,  ruled  by  the 
line  of  Attalids  ;  Macedon  itself,  to  which  Greece  remains 
more  or  less  subject.  These  kingdoms  maintain  an  inde- 
pendent existence  under  absolute  rulers,  supported  by 
standing  armies  that  are  officered  by  Greeks  and  Macedo- 
nians, until  they  become  part  of  the  Roman  dominion  in  the 
first  and  second  centuries  B.C.  The  period  from  323  to 
146  B.C.  is  marked  in  Greece  by  a  series  of  attempts  at 
local  independence  and  social  and  political  reform ;  these 
attempts  are  made,  —  sometimes  by  individual  cities,  no- 
tably, by  Athens  under  Demosthenes,  and  by  Sparta  under 
its  kings  Agis  and  Cleomenes,  —  and  sometimes  by  the 
Greek  leagues,  notably,  the  Achaean  and  ^Etolian.  Each 
of  the  cities  in  these  leagues  has  its  own  local  govern- 
ment, but  their  common  business  is  done  by  an  assem- 
bly or  council  chosen  by  all,  in  which  each  city  has  one 
vote. 

QUESTIONS  ON  I. 

In  the  name  of  what  people  are  the  conquests  of  Alexander  made? 
Name  all  the  proofs  of  this.  How  far  is  he  himself  Greek?  Proofs. 
Why  does  the  conquest  of  a  country  mean  the  conquest  of  its  cities  ? 
Of  what  value  are  his  conquests  to  commerce?  Why  should  the 
motto  on  p.  119  be  chosen  ? 

On  the  face  of  it,  what  fault  is  there  in  the  Greek  attempts  at  inde- 
pendence ?  In  these  leagues  what  new  political  form  do  you  note  ? 
What  modern  governments  do  they  somewhat  resemble? 

See  Map  facing  p.  75. 

NOTE.  • —  Alexander  himself  is  said  to  have  founded 
more  than  seventy  towns ;  in  each  he  left  a  permanent 
Greek-speaking  garrison,  ruling  the  native  population 
according  to  Greek  political  forms  and  ideas. 


122 


STUDIES   IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


QUESTIONS  ON   MAP  AND  NOTE. 

How  does  the  size  of  this  empire  compare  with  that  of  those  before 
noticed  ?  What  element  of  unity  does  it  possess  ?  What  element  does 
it  lack  ?  Why  should  Alexander  turn  eastward  rather  than  westward 
for  conquest  ?  What  wisdom  is  displayed  in  choosing  the  coast-route 
rather  than  in  striking  for  the  interior  ?  What  is  the  use  of  his  estab- 
lishing towns  along  his  route?  What  great  cities  of  the  world  are 
due  to  the  foundations  of  Alexander  and  his  successors?  Of  w hats- 
value  is  the  position  of  Alexandria?  What  does  his  march  alone 
tell  us  of  the  character  of  Alexander?  Of  his  greatness?  What 
civilizations  are  brought  into  mutual  contact  by  these  conquests? 

2.  List  of  Famous  Names  and   WorJcs  in  the  Kingdoms 
of  the    Diadochfe  (Successors  of  Alexander). 


Name. 

-2o 
goa 

Birth,  Circumstance, 
Training. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Apollonius 

3d, 

Greek;  studied 

Epic  poet;  took  as  sub- 

Greek. 

of  Rhodes, 

under  Callimach- 

ject  the  early  Greek 

us  ;  taught  rhet- 

myths of  "  The  Argo- 

oric  at  Rhodes  ; 

nautic  Expedition." 

superintendent  of 

Alexandrian 

library. 

Aratus, 

3d, 

Greek  of  Asia 

Poet;  giving  scientific 

Greek. 

Minor;  court 

instruction  in  verse  ; 

physician  to  Ma- 

his poems  were  popu- 

cedonian king  ; 

lar  among  the  Ro- 

patronized by 

mans,  and  he  was 

Ptolemies. 

imitated  to  some  ex- 

tent by  Virgil. 

Archimedes, 

3d, 

Greek  of  Syracuse; 

Invented  methods  of 

Greek. 

studied   at  Alex- 

and instruments  for 

andria  in  the 

investigating  natural 

Royal  School  of 

forces  ;  greatest  math- 

the Ptolemies; 

ematical  and  mechani- 

personal friend 

cal  genius  of  antiquity. 

of  Hiero,  his 

patron,  and  king 

of  Syracuse. 

STUDY    OX    THE    HELLENISTIC    KINGDOMS. 


128 


Name, 

!« 

0 

Birth,   Circumstance, 
Training, 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Aristophanes 

3d, 

Greek  of  Byzan- 

Founded a  school  for 

Greek. 

of  Byzan- 

tium ;  studied 

grammar  and  criti- 

tium, 

under  Eratosthen- 

cism ;  superintendent 

es  of  Alexandria. 

of  Alexandrian  libra- 

ry ;  Homeric  critic  ; 

commented  on  works 

of  Hesiod,  Alcaeus, 

Pindar,  Plato,  and 

Aristotle;  invented 

Greek  system  of 

punctuation  and 

accent. 

Aristarchus, 

3d, 

Greek  of  Samos. 

Astronomer;  the  first 

Greek. 

to  maintain  that  the 

earth  moves  around 

the  sun,  thus  antici- 

pating the  discovery 

of  Copernicus. 

Berosus, 

3d, 

Babylonian  priest  ; 

Translated  Babylonian 

Greek. 

was  patronized 

history  into  Greek, 

by  the  Greek 

from  original  records. 

Antiochus. 

Bion, 

3d, 

Greek  of  Asia 

Poet  ;  wrote  on  the 

Greek. 

Minor  ;  spent  the 

beauties  of  nature 

latfer  part  of  his 

and  the  pleasures  of 

life  in  Sicily. 

life  in  the  country. 

Diogenes, 

4th, 

Greek  of  Sinope  ; 

Cynic  philosopher; 

Greek. 

banished;  lived 

teaching  the  vanity 

in  Athens  and 

of  human  desires,  oc- 

Corinth. 

cupations,  and  achieve- 

ments. 

124 


STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Name. 

fe 

J* 

Birth,  Circumstance, 
Training. 

Cause  of  Fame, 

Language. 

Epicurus, 

4th 

Samian  Greek  ; 

Founder  of  Epicurean 

Greek. 

son  of  a  common 

school  of  philosophy, 

school-master  ; 

which  teaches  that 

teacher  of  phil- 

happiness should  be 

osophy  in  Athens 

the  aim  of  human 

conduct. 

Eratosthenes 

3d, 

Alexandrian  Greek, 

Astronomer,  geogra- 

Greek. 

born  at  Gyrene  ; 

pher,  and  geometri- 

superintendent of 

cian  ;  invented  present 

Alexandrian 

method  of  measuring 

library. 

the  size  of  the  earth, 

which  he  taught  was 

round. 

Euemeros, 

4th 

Sicilian  Greek;  in 

Author  of   a  work   to 

Greek. 

and 

service  of  Mace- 

show that  the  gods 

3d, 

donian  king. 

were  but  heroes  dei- 

fied by  men  on  ac- 

count of  their  great 

deeds. 

Euclid, 

3d, 

Greek;  patronized 

Founded  a  mathemati- 

Jreek. 

by  Ptolemies. 

cal  school  at  Alexan- 

dria; author  of 

"  Elements  of  Geome- 

try," which  for  twenty 

centuries  has  held  its 

ground  as  an  intro- 

duction to  geometry. 

Eumenes  II., 

2d, 

King  of  Pergamos. 

Founded  the  famous 

Jreek. 

library  1  at  Pergamos; 

built  the  great  Perga- 

mon  altar  to  Athena, 

and  had  Pergamos 

adorned  with  beauti- 

ful sculptures. 

1  The  library  contained  200,000  volumes 
Cleopatra. 


when  Antony  presented  it   to 


STUDY    ON    THE    HELLENISTIC    KINGDOMS. 


1*25 


Name. 

I* 

Birth,  Circumstance, 
Training. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Hipparchus, 

2d, 

Greek  of  Nistea  in 
Bithynia. 

Founder  of  mathemati- 
cal astronomy  and  of 
plane  and  spherical 
trigonometry; 

Greek. 

greatest  astronomer 
of  antiquity. 

Manetho, 

3d, 

Egyptian  priest 
and  annalist; 

Translated  original 
historical  records  of 

Greek. 

patronized  by 
Ptolemies. 

Egypt  into  Greek. 

Menander, 

4th, 

Athenian  Greek  ; 
associate  of  phil- 
osophers and  a 
man  of  society. 

Author  of  comedies 
whose  material  was 
taken  from  domestic 
and  common  life. 
(New  Comedy). 

Greek. 

Ptolemy 
Soter, 

4th 
and 
3d, 

General  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great 
in  the  Asiatic 
campaign  ;  king 
of  Egypt  and 
founder  of  the 
Grasco-Egyptian 
dynasty. 

Rebuilt  and  ornament- 
ed the  temples  of  the 
Egyptian  gods  ;  col- 
lected  a   library  and 
founded  the  Museum, 
or  college  of  profes- 
sors, thus  forming  a 
true  university.1 

Greek. 

PtolemyPhil- 
adelphus, 

3d, 

Hereditary  king  of 
Egypt. 

Reopened  the  canal  of 
Rameses  II.  ;  built 
Arsinoe  on  the  site  of 

Greek. 

modern  Suez,  also 
built  cities  on  the 

1  "  The  Museum,  or  university  building,  comprised  chambers  for  the 
professors;  a  common  hall  where  they  took  their  meals  together;  a  long 
corridor  for  exercise  and  ambulatory  lectures ;  a  theatre  for  scholastic 
festivals  and  public  disputations ;  a  botanical  garden  and  a  menagerie." 


STUDIES 


GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Name. 

• 

Birth,  Circumstance, 
Training. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Red  Sea  coast,  through 
which  the  merchan- 

dise of  India,  Arabia, 
and  Ethiopia  reached 
Europe  for  several 
centuries  ;  had  the 

Arabian  coast  ex- 

plored ;  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  translated 
into  Greek  (Septua- 
gint),  about  his  time. 

Pyrrho, 

4th 
and 

Greek  of  Elis  ; 
high  priest  ;  poet, 
painter,  philoso- 
pher; joined  the 
expedition  of 
Alexander  the 

Taught  that  truth  from 
a  scientific  point  of 
view  was  unattaina- 
ble ;  founder  of  a 
school  of  skeptics. 

Greek. 

- 

Great. 

Seleucus 
Nikator, 

4th, 

Son  of  Antiochus, 
a  general  of 
Philip  of  Mace- 
don,  who  accom- 

Founded Syrian  mon- 
archy ;  founded  the 
city  of  Seleucia  ; 
built  Antioch. 

Greek. 

panied  Alexander 
the  Great  in  his 

Asiatic  expedi- 

tion. 

Theocritus, 

3d, 

Greek  of  Syracuse  ; 
went  to  Alexan- 

Poet ;  using  same  ma- 
terial as  Bion. 

Greek. 

dria  and  secured 

the  patronage  of 
Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus. 

STUDY    ON   THE   HELLENISTIC    KINGDOMS.  127 

QUESTIONS  ON   2. 

It  is  said  that  the  conquests  of  Alexander  were  the  conquests  of 
Hellenism ;  how  far  is  this  true  ?  Proofs.  In  what  directions  was 
Hellenism  developed  under  the  Diadochse?  What  effect  had  the 
Alexandrian  conquest  on  language?  What  historic  reason  for  the 
rapid  development  of  the  Greek  civilization  in  Egypt  and  in  Asia  ? 
What  were  the  centres  of  this  development?  On  what  did  this 
development  depend  for  support?  Illustrate  from  commerce,  liter- 
ature, art.  What  new  forms  of  literature  arose  during  this  period? 
Compare  Theocritus  and  ^Eschylus;  Menander  and  Aristophanes; 
comparing  material  alone,  which  poets  rank  higher?  What  studies 
were  further  developed?  What  historic  reason  for  this?  What  did 
men  think  about  in  philosophy?  Compare  with  Socrates  and  the 
earlier  philosophers. 


128 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTOKY. 


Phoenicians. 

Roman  Roads 
-  Etruscans 


ITALY 

ABOUT-  150-B.C. 


I.  Latium.  HI.  Sabine  Land. 

II.  Etruria.  IV.  Cisalpine  Gaul. 


V.  Samnium.  VII.  Apulia. 

VI.  Campania.  VIII.  Umbria. 


STUDY   ON    11EGAL   AND    PR^-PUNIC    HOME.  129 


ROME,  753(?)  B.C. -800  A.D. 

S.P.Q.R.  ("Senatus  Populusque  liomanus,"  —  The  Senate  and  the  People 
of  Rome). 

"...  Others,  I  grant  indeed,  shall  with  more  delicacy  mold  the  breathing 
brass ;  from  marble  draw  the  features  to  the  life ;  plead  causes  better ; 
describe  with  the  rod  the  courses  of  the  heavens,  and  explain  the  rising 
stars  :  to  rule  the  nations  with  imperial  sway  be  thy  care,  O  Roman ; 
these  shall  be  thy  arts ;  to  impose  terms  of  peace,  to  spare  the  humbled 
and  crush  the  proud."  —  VIKGIL. 

PERIODS  OF  ROMAN  HISTORY. 

A.  Regal,  753(?)-510(?)  B.C. 

B.  Republican,  510(?)-27. 

I.   Pros-Punic  Period,  510(?)-264. 
II.  Punic* Period,  264-146. 
III.   Post-Punic,  146-27. 

C.  Imperial,  27  B.C.  - 1806  A.D. 

I.  Pagan  Empire,  27  B.C. -32  3  A.D. 
II.   Christian  Empire,  323-800,  dividing  into 
Holy  Roman  Empire  (Western),  800-1806, 
Byzantine  or  Greek  Empire  (Eastern),  800-1453. 


Note  on  Map  of  Italy.  —  The  valleys  and  table-lands  of  the 
Apennines  are  connected  by  easy  passes,  and  their  slopes  are  grassy 
and  fertile,  —  scarcely  reaching  the  snow-line.  The  products  of  the 
land,  and  the  dress  and  food  of  the  people  were  similar  to  those 
of  Greece.  Latium  on  the  north  "  imperceptibly  merged  into  the 
broad  highlands  of  Etruria " ;  its  plain  was  easily  worked  and 
richly  productive ;  Rome  itself  was  placed  on  seven  hills,  where 
three  allied  Italian  tribes  had  their  strongholds,  and  controlled  either 
shore  of  Tiber  to  the  sea. 

1  So-called  because  it  is  marked  by  the  great  wars  of  Rome  and  Car- 
thage ;  Pras-Punic  means  the  time  before  these  wars,  Post-Punic  the  period 
after. 


130  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

QUESTIONS  ON   MAP  AND   NOTE. 

What  are  the  natural  boundaries  of  Italy  ?  How,  and  from  what 
do  they  protect  her  ?  What  geographical  reasons  can  you  give  for 
the  race-division  of  Italy?  What  geographic  contrasts  do  you  see 
between  Greece  and  Italy?  What  difference  will  these  contrasts 
cause,  (a)  in  relative  dates  of  the  beginnings  of  Greek  and  Italian 
civilization?  (b)  in  the  size  of  Greek  and  Italian  states?  (c)  in  the 
natural  occupations  of  the  inhabitants?  Reason  for  each  answer. 
What  advantages  of  position  has  Rome  ?  What  advantages  of  posi- 
tion have  the  people  of  Latium  as  compared  with  those  of  Samnium  ? 
The  commerce  of  what  countries  can  the  masters  of  Italy  and  Sicily 
control?  How?  (See  map  of  Roman  Empire  under  Trajan,  pp. 
190,  191.) 


A.  B.     I.   STUDY  ON  EEGAL  EOME  AND  FEU-PUNIC 
EEPUBLIO,  753(?)-510(?)-264  B.C. 

Chief  contemporary  authorities:  remains  of  laws  and 
inscriptions ;  the  walls  and  other  monuments  of  the  kings 
and  the  early  republic. 

Other  chief  original  authorities:  Livy,  Plutarch, 
Dionysius. 

Chief  modern  authorities :  Mommsen,  Ihne,  Duruy. 

1.  Classes  of  People  in  Early  Rome. 

Patricians,  who  claim  descent  from  the  founders  and 
settlers  of  Rome ;  they  belong  to  three  different  Italian 
tribes,  each  tribe  being  subdivided  into  clans,  and  these 
again  into  families. 

Plebeians,  who  seem  to  be  the  descendants  of  strangers 
and  unrelated  settlers  on  the  Roman  hills ;  they  are  not 
allowed  to  marry  into  patrician  families,  nor  to  share  their 
religious  rites. 

Slaves,  who  largely  consist  of  those  sold  for  debt  or 
taken  captive  in  war. 


STUDY   ON    REGAL   AND   PR^E-PUNIC    HOME. 


131 


2.     The   Political    Organizations    (Constitutions)    of  the 
Period. 

a.    Duties   and   Powers    of    Various   Parts    of   Regal   Home, 
753(?)-510(?)   B.C. 


Parts  of  the  State 
in 

War. 

Law. 

Administration. 

Religion. 

King,  patrician 

Commands 

Proposes  ; 

Chooses  and 

Nominates 

from  any 

the  army  ; 

judges, 

summons  sen- 

priests and 

tribe. 

decides  war 

with  power 

ate  and  magis- 

priestesses ; 

(except  ag- 

of life  and 

trates  ;  is  state 

offers  sacri- 

gressive) 

death. 

treasurer;  de- 

fices, and 

and  peace. 

crees  and  car- 

consults 

ries  through 

the  gods  in 

public  works  ;  J 

behalf  of 

nominates 

the  state. 

successor. 

Senate   of  300 

Approves 

Consulted 

Senators  rule 

patricians  ; 

the  motion 

by  king  ; 

by  turns  in 

100  clan- 

for  aggres- 

approves 

case  of  an 

elders  from 

sive  war. 

or  disap- 

interregnum.2 

each  tribe. 

proves  his 

measures. 

Curiate  Assem- 

Composes 

Confirms  or 

Constructs  pub- 

bly, com- 

army ; 

rejects 

lic  works  ;  ac- 

Worships 

posed  of  the 

votes  upon 

laws;  has 

cepts  nomina- 

together, 

men  of  the 

aggressive 

right  of 

tion  of  king; 

grouped  in 

patrician 

war. 

pardon  if 

meets  to  hear 

curies,  each 

tribes  divided 

king  per- 

commands, 

cury  with 

into  curies.3 

mits  an  ap- 

news, etc. 

its  own 

peal  ;  no 

priest. 

discussion 

allowed. 

1  For  public  works  of  Regal  Rome,  see  p.  140. 

2  Space  of  time  between  the  rules  of  two  successive  kings. 

3  A   "Cury"  was  a  group  of  clans  distinguished  from  the  others  by  a 
closer  blood-relationship  among  themselves. 


132 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


Note.  —  Servius  Tullius,  the  contemporary  of  Solon,  adds  to  this 
organization  the  Centuriate  Assembly,  composed  of  all  land-holding 
patricians  and  plebeians,  divided  into  centuries  or  hundreds ;  those 
possessing  property  within  certain  fixed  amounts  are  placed  in  the 
same  century.  This  new  assembly  composes  the  Roman  army,  builds 
public  works,  and  has  the  right  to  accept  or  reject  by  its  vote  aggres- 
sive warfare. 

STUDY   ON    «. 

Of  whom  is  this  state  practically  composed?  Where  is  its  power 
centred  ?  Who  feels  this  power?  How  ?  If  a  revolution  occur,  what 
will  you  expect  to  find  changed  ?  What  are  the  bonds  of  union  in  this 
state?  Why  should  the  plebeians  be  admitted  to  the  army?  What 
does  this  change  show  in  regard  to  their  number  in  Rome  ?  What 
power  does  it  give  them  in  case  they  are  wronged?  At  what  may 
the  plebeians  be  dissatisfied  ?  What  name  will  you  give  this  form 
of  government? 

b.    Constitution  of  Rome  as  changed  at  510  B.C. 


Parts  of  the  State 
in 

War. 

Law, 

Administration. 

Religion. 

Two  annual 

Command 

Propose 

Appoint  dicta- 

Offer sacri- 

consuls; pa- 

the army. 

measures  to 

tor,  quaestors, 

fices  and 

tricians. 

centuries 

and  senators  ; 

consult 

and  senate; 

accept  or  re- 

gods for 

judge,  but 

ject  consular 

the  com- 

must allow 

nominations  of 

munity,  by 

an  appeal 

centuries. 

means  of 

to  the 

priests  and 

centuries. 

augurs,1 

who  are 

patricians. 

1  The  auspices  and  auguries  played  the  part  in  Rome  which  the  oracles 
did  in  Greece.  The  flight  of  birds,  the  quivering  entrails  of  freshly 
slaughtered  victims,  the  thunder,  lightning,  and  earthquake  revealed  to 
the  Romans  the  will  of  their  deities.  This  will  was  interpreted  to  them 
by  the  augurs,  who  formed  a  regular  college  supported  by  the  state.  The 


STUDY   ON   REGAL    AND   PR^E-PUNIC    ROME. 


133 


Parts  of  the  State 
in 

War. 

Law. 

Administration. 

Religion. 

One  dictator 

Same  po 

wers  as  those 

of  king  in  Regal  . 

Period. 

on  occasion  ; 

• 

patrician. 

Senate,  essen- 

Declares 

Confirms  or 

Confirms  or  re- 

Appoints 

tially  patri- 

war and 

rejects  de- 

jects elected 

days  of  spe- 

cian. 

peace. 

cisions  of 

officers  ;  con- 

cial suppli- 

centuries ; 

trols  expendi- 

cation, 

debates 

ture;  makes 

sacrifice, 

measures  to 

and  breaks 

or  thanks- 

be proposed 

alliances. 

giving. 

by  consuls. 

Curiate 

Takes  oath  of 

Decides  on 

Assembly  ; 

allegiance  to 

some 

patrician. 

the  consul  or 

religious 

dictator. 

matters. 

Centuriate 

Composes 

Confirms  or 

Elects  consuls. 

Is  present 

Assembly,  as 

the  army  ; 

rejects  pro- 

at acts  of 

before. 

consents  to 

posals  of 

public 

aggressive 

consuls; 

worship. 

war. 

has  right  of 

. 

pardon  on 

an  appeal  ; 

meets  to 

hear  com- 

mands, 

news,  etc.; 

I 

no  debate. 

Romans  did  not  feel  justified  in  entering  on  any  public  action,  unsanctioned 
by  the  gods ;  thus  their  laws,  their  treaties,  their  records,  their  standards 
of  weight  and  measure,  were  protected  by  the  temples  and  the  priests. 
The  former  were  built,  the  latter  were  supported,  by  the  public  treasury ; 
the  senate-house  was  a  temple ;  every  public  assembly,  every  expedition, 
began  with  prayers  to  the  gods. 


134 


STUDIES   IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


STUDY  ON    I  AND  2,  a,  6. 

What  are  the  two  greatest  differences  between  this  and  the  formei 
constitution?  What  is  now  the  strongest  part  of  the  state?  In 
whose  hands  is  the  power?  What  class  has  probably  made  this 
change,  and  why?  What  name  will  you  give  to  this  sort  of  govern- 
ment? What  part  of  the  state  is  now  oppressed,  and  in  what  does 
that  oppression  consist?  What  power  has  this  part  to  overcome  this 
oppression  ?  What  bonds  of  union  are  there  in  this  state  ?  Where 
does  each  bond  appear?  Which  bond  is  most  prominent?  What 
part  of  the  state  is  increasing  in  power  ? 

c.    TJie  Roman  Constitution  at  264  B.C. 


Parts  of  the  State 
in 

War. 

Law, 

Administration. 

Religion. 

Two  annual 

As  before. 

Propose 

Convene  senate, 

As  before  ; 

Consuls,  pa- 

measures 

centuries,  and 

but  the 

trician  and 

to  centuries 

tribes. 

priests  and 

plebeian. 

and  senate. 

augurs  are 

patrician 

and 

plebeian. 

One  annual 

Judges. 

Convenes  and 

Praetor,  patri- 

gets decrees 

cian  or 

from  senate. 

plebeian. 

Two  Censors, 

Declare  who  has 

Perform 

patrician  and 

the  right  to  sit 

lustrations.1 

plebeian. 

in  the  senate, 

vote  in  this  or 

that  assembly, 

hold  this  or 

that  office  ; 

look  after  pre- 

servation of 

manners  and 

morals. 

Sacrifices  for  purification  from  some  public  crime. 


STUDY    OX    IlEGAL    AND    PR^E-PUJSTIC    11OMK. 


135 


Parts  of  the  State 
in 

War. 

Law. 

Administration. 

Religion. 

Ten  annual 

Propose 

Convene,  con- 

Tribunes, 

measures 

sult,  obtain, 

plebeians. 

to  Tribal 

and  veto  de- 

assembly ; 

crees  from  the 

veto; 

senate  ;  convene 

judge. 

tribal  assembly. 

One  Dictator 

As  before,  he  has  absolute  power  durinj 

office. 

on  occasion, 

patrician  or 

plebeian. 

Senate,  patri- 

As before. 

Deliberates 

As  before. 

As  before. 

cian  and 

on  meas- 

plebeian. 

ures  to  be 

proposed 

to  the 

assemblies. 

Curiate 

As  before. 

As  before. 

As  before. 

As  before. 

Assembly. 

Centuriate 

As  before. 

As  before. 

Elect  censors 

As  before. 

assembly, 

and  prators  ; 

as  before, 

otherwise  as 

adding  free- 

before. 

born  landless 

citizens  and 

freedmen. 

Tribal  or 

Confirm  or 

Elect  tribunes. 

District 

reject  the 

assembly  ' 

measures 

of  citizens. 

proposed  by 

the  tribunes; 

court  of 

justice. 

1  A  District  Assembly  was  composed  of  Roman  citizens,  divided  into 
tribes  according  to  residence,  those  living  in  the  same  district  or  ward 
being  placed  in  the  same  tribe ;  in  such  an  assembly  one  vote  was  as  good 
as  another,  whereas,  in  the  Centuries,  the  votes  of  the  richest  counted  for 
most. 


136  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL    HISTORY. 

STUDY  ON   2,  a,  6,  c. 

What  great  changes  have  occurred  in  the  Roman  constitution  since 
510  B.C.  ?  Compare  this  constitution  with  the  Athenian  in  regard  to, 
(a)  the  curies,  (6)  the  centuries,  (c)  the  tribes.  How  do  the  classes 
compare  now  ?  What  name  will  you  give  to  this  government  ?  What 
bonds  of  union  are  found  in  it?  Which  of  these  is  the  newest? 
What  part  of  the  state  is  increasing  in  power  ?  Prove  it.  Comparing 
the  three  constitutions,  —  of  regal  Rome,  of  510,  of  264;  what  pro- 
gressive changes  do  you  notice,  (a)  in  regard  to  the  division  of 
power?  (&)  in  regard  to  the  classes  holding  power?  (c)  in  regard 
to  justice  and  liberty  ?  What  permanent  relation  between  the  political 
and  military  organization  ? 


d.     Story  from  Livy  to  illustrate  Change  from  b  to  c.  —  How 
the  Tribunes  arose  (about  494  B.C.). 

One  day  an  old  man,  ragged,  pale,  emaciated,  "  threw  him- 
self into  the  forum !  .  .  .  and  .  .  .  exhibited  scars  on  his  breast, 
witnesses  of  honorable  battles."  To  those  enquiring,  he  said 
"  that  while  serving  in  the  Sabine  war,  because  he,  had  not  only 
been  deprived  of  the  produce  of  his  land  in  consequence  of  the 
.  .  .  enemy,  but  also  his  residence  had  been  burned  down,  all 
his  effects  pillaged,  his  cattle  driven  off,  a  tax  imposed  on  him, 
...  lie  had  incurred  debt ;  .  .  .  that  he  was  taken  by  his  creditor 
.  .  .  into  ...  a  place  of  execution  "  :2  he  then  showed  his  back, 
disfigured  with  the  marks  of  recent  stripes.  "At  the  hearing  and 
seeing  of  this  .  .  .  sedition  came  to  such  a  height  that  the  maj- 
esty of  the  consuls  could  hardly  restrain  the  violence  of  the 
people.  .  .  ."  Amidst  those  debates  "  the  news  came  that  a 
hostile  army  was  marching  on  Rome.  The  people  exulted  with 
joy,  and  said  .  .  .  that  the  patricians  should  serve  as  soldiers  .  .  . 
so  that  the  perils  of  war  should  remain  with  whom  the  advan- 
tages were.  But  the  senate  .  .  .  entreated  the  consul  ...  to 
extricate  the  commonwealth."  The  consul  then  proceeding  to 

1  The  public  square  of  Rome,  used  for  a  market  and  meeting-place. 

2  See  laws  of  debt,  p.  145. 


STUDY    ON    11EGAL   AND    PR^E-PUNIC    ROME.  137 

the  assembly  declared  that  nothing  could  take  precedence  of 
defensive  warfare  ;  that  the  enemy  was  almost  at  the  gates  ; 
and  then  and  there  ordained  that  no  Roman  citizen  should  be 
detained  "  in  chains  or  in  prison,"  that  no  one  should  "  seize  or 
sell  his  goods,"  "arrest  his  children  or  grandchildren"  while 
he  himself  was  enrolled  for  war.  Thus  allaying  the  present 
difficulty,  the  consul  led  forth  the  citizens  and  defeated  the 
enemy.  But  on  their  return  to  Rome,  new  and  severer  laws 
regarding  debt  were  decreed  ;  at  the  same  time,  the  Sabines 
threatened  the  city  with  war ;  but  "when  a  levy  was  decreed, 
nobody  gave  in  his  name  .  .  .  and  the  people  crowding  around 
the  consuls  .  .  .  said  '  They  should  never  enlist  one  soldier  till 
the  public  faith  was  made  good  ;  that  liberty  should  be  restored 
to  each  before  arms  were  given.' "  The  senate,  however,  ap- 
pointed as  dictator  a  man  favored  by  the  plebeians,  and  him  they 
followed  against  the  Sabines ;  the  more  so,  as  he  promised  to 
gain  them  favorable  laws.  On  his  return,  accordingly,  he 
renewed  "  the  question  relative  to  debt,  .  .  .  but  the  senate 
refused  to  consider  it "  ;  whereupon  the  plebeians,  still  under 
arms,  marched  out  of  Rome  to  the  Sacred  Mount,  and  quietly 
encamped ;  nor  were  they  induced  to  return  till  the  senate 
promised  "that  the  plebeians  should  have  their  own  magis- 
trates." Thus  arose  the  tribunes  of  the  plebs. 

STUDY  ON  d. 

What  parties  existed  in  Rome  ?  Corresponding  to  what  in  Greek 
history  ?  What  seems  to  have  been  the  trouble  between  them  ?  What 
parallel  in  Greek  history  ?  What  spirit  was  shown  by  each  party  in 
this  story  ?  What  united  these  parties  ?  What  power  had  either  to 
compel  the  other  to  do  as  it  wished  ?  What  two  things  did  the  ple- 
beians gain  by  means  of  their  power  ? 

3.   Summary  of  Chief  External  Events  and   Relations 
of  the  Period. 

From  very  early  times  the  towns  of  Latium  seem  to 
have  formed  a  league  with  Rome ;  the  earliest  form  of 
this  league  accepted  as  reliable  dates  from  the  first  cen- 


138  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

tury  of  the  Republic  (about  493  B.C.),  and  provides  that 
there  shall  be  everlasting  peace  between  Rome  and  Latium, 
and  that  they  shall  help  one  another  in  war.  This  league 
is  confirmed  and  maintained  by  the  common  worship  of 
Jupiter1  on  the  Alban  mount. 

From  753  to  about  400  B.C.  a  constant  petty  warfare 
goes  on  all  about  the  Latin  frontier,  with  varying  success, 
but  gradually  strengthening  the  power  of  the  Latin 
League.  The  most  memorable  victory  of  this  series  of 
wars  seems  to  have  been  the  siege  and  destruction  of  the 
Etruscan  town  of  Veii,  apparently  Rome's  most  formi- 
dable neighbor. 

The  Gauls  invade  Latium  from  the  north, 
defeat  the  Roman  army,  capture  Rome,  plunder 
and  burn  it,  but  are  at  last  persuaded,  by  a  large  pay- 
ment of  gold,  to  withdraw.  Rome  is  hastily  and  irregu- 
larly rebuilt. 

Continued  war  of  Latium  against  her  neigh- 
bors ;  the  whole  of  southern  Etruria  is  subjected 
to  Roman  dominion.  —  Rome  and  Carthage  make 
a  treaty  of  commerce.  —  Rome  pushes  her  dominion  south- 
ward to  the  Samnite  border.  —  Samnite  emigrants  in 
Campania  ask  Roman  aid  against  the  Samnites  of  the 
mountains;  the  result  of  the  war  is  that  Rome  gains 
Capua. 

The  Latins  demand  equal  rights  with  the 
Romans  in  the  government  of  Rome  and  Rome's 
dominion ;  denied,  they  wage  war  on  Rome,  the 


end  of  which  is  that  the   Latin  League  is  dissolved  and 
the  superior  power  of  Rome  firmly  fixed  in  Latium. 

New  war  with  the  Samnites,  caused  by  Roman 

aggression ;  Campania  is  thoroughly  conquered ; 

the  whole   of  Etruria  comes  under  the   Roman 


1  The  chief  Latin  deity,  corresponding  to  the  Greek  Zeus. 


STUDY   ON     REGAL    AND   PR^E-PTJNIC    ROME.  189 

power.  Two  fine  military  roads  are  built,  the  Flaminian 
Way  northward,  the  Appian  Way  southward  to  Capua, 
and  colonies  of  Roman  soldiers  are  settled  through  the 
conquered  lands. 

The  Samnites  lead  in  a  third  war  against  Rome,  and 
are  joined  by  Etruscans,  South  Italians,  and  mountain 
tribes ;  at  its  close  the  Romans  gain  dominion  through 
the  lands  of  the  Sabines  and  the  Umbriaris,  and  a  name 
which  is  feared  throughout  the  yet  unconquered  parts  of 
Italy. 

Roman  ships  of  war,  contrary  to  treaty,  anchor  in  the 
harbor  of  Tarentum ;  the  people  attack  them,  capture  five 
and  kill  or  sell  their  crews.  A  Roman  embassy  sent  to 
arrange  matters,  is  insulted,  and  war  breaks  out  between 
Rome  and  Tarentum.  The  Tareritines  call  Pyrrhus,  king 
of  Epirus,  to  their  aid,  and  are  joined  by  the  Samnites 
and  South  Italians. 

After  nearly  ten  years  of  war  Tarentum  is  subdued, 
the  lands  of  the  Samnites,  Apulians,  Campanians,  and  all 
other  South  Italian  peoples  come  under  the  dominion  of 
Rome.  The  north  is  now  thoroughly  subjugated  up  to 
the  Rubicon  and  the  Apennines. 

In  the  earliest  conquests  the  defeated  peoples,  together 
with  their  gods,  become  a  part  of  the  Roman  community 
and  share  in  the  Roman  worship.  As  soon  as  Rome 
begins  to  conquer  beyond  the  borders  of  Latium,  however, 
she  sends  forth  bands  of  her  own  citizens  to  possess  and 
cultivate  a  part,  and  defend  the  whole,  of  her  newly 
acquired  territories.  These  settled  bands  are  the  so-called 
Roman  colonies. 

The  only  claims  which  Rome  makes  throughout  her 
Italian  dominion  are,  —  a  tribute  of  armed  men  or  ships, 
the  sole  right  of  making  war  and  peace,  and  the  sole 
power  of  coining  money.  J  She  gives  the  inhabitants  of 


140  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

some  cities  and  towns  the  name,  with  the  duties  and 
privileges,  of  full  Roman  citizens ;  others  have  the  "  Latin 
right,"  that  is,  the  right  of  free  trade  with  Rome,  and  the 
power,  under  conditions,  of  becoming  Roman  citizens; 
still  others  are  subject  directly  to  Roman  officers  and 
Roman  law;  others,  again,  are  under  their  own  local 
laws  and  government,  bound  to  Rome  by  a  simple  treaty 
of  equal  alliance. 

Wherever  Rome  conquers,  she  claims  at  least  a  third  of 
the  land ;  this  is  divided  among  the  citizens  of  Rome,  and 
its  distribution  causes  great  strife  between  the  various 
classes  of  her  people.  This  struggle  gives  rise  to  a  long 
series  of  " Agrarian  Laws"  intended  to  prevent  any 
monopoly  or  great  inequality  in  the  possession  of  subject 
land. 

STUDY    ON    3. 

In  what  order  does  Rome  conquer  Italy?  What  advantage  for 
conquest  has  Rome  ?  (See  map,  and  pictures,  pp.  141, 142.)  Name  all 
the  measures  by  which  her  conquests  are  secured.  Name  two  or  three 
things  which  must  become  alike  throughout  Italy  by  these  means. 
Of  what  value  is  this  to  •  Rome  ?  Contrast  the  Roman  and  Greek 
colonies  in  regard  to  the  purposes  and  occupations  of  their  founders. 
Contrast  Roman  dominion  in  Italy  with  the  Athenian  empire.  Which 
was  the  stronger,  and  why?  Can  you  tell  in  one  word  in  what  the 
strength  of  Rome  consists  ?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  words 
"  growth  "  and  "  development  "  as  used  in  the  phrases,  "  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Roman  constitution,"  "  the  growth  of  Rome's  dominion"? 

4.   Notable  Works  and  Innovations  of  Period. 

a.    Under  the  Kings,  753(?)-510(?)   B.C. 

Walls  of  Rome  ;  defences  of  the  Capitol ;  prison  and 
treasury ;  temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitol ;  forum  or 
public  square  for  markets  and  for  great  meetings  of  the 
people,  such  as  the  Assemblies;  bridges  over  the  Tiber; 


STUDY   ON     REGAL    AND    PR^E-PTJNIC    ROME. 


141 


the  Great  Circus,  a  measured  level  space  for  games  and 
spectacles;  the  Great  Drain  (Cloaca  Maxima),  for  carrying 
the  sewerage  of  Rome  into  the  Tiber. 


PART   OF  THE   ETRUSCAN    (ETRURIAN)   WALL, 
at  Volterra,  near  Rome,  built  about  700  B.C. 

&.    Under  Republic,  510(?)-264  B.C. 

Great  military  roads,  hard,  firm,  and  smooth,  going  out 
from  Rome  in  various  directions  (see  map,  p.  128);  the 
most  famous  is  the  Appian  Way,  going  south  to  Capua; 


142  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

the  Appian  aqueduct;  ships  of  war;  bronze  image  of  the 
she-wolf  and  the  twins,  made  and  dedicated  in  honor  of 


PART  OP  THE  WALL  OP  THE  KINGS  (SERVIUS?). 
on  the  Aventine  Hill  in  Rome.    The  arch  is  believed  to  be  the  second  oldest  in  Europe. 

the  wolf  who  was  said  to  have  nursed  the  deserted  twins, 
Romulus  and  Remus,  the  legendary  founders  of  Rome; 


STUDY    ON    REGAL   AND   PIl^E-PUNIC    ROME.  143 

temple  of  Ceres,  built  and  adorned  with  paintings  by 
Greeks ;  temple  of  Apollo ;  twelve  tables  of  Roman  law, 
said  to  have  been  drawn  up  by  Roman  law-givers  after  a 
journey  to  Greece  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  laws  of 
Solon ;  beginning  of  historical  annals  of  Rome,  written 
by  priests  and  laid  up  in  the  temples  (destroyed  at  the 
burning  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls) ;  statues  erected  in  the 
Forum  in  honor  of  generals,  law-givers,  famous  citizens, 
or  public  benefactors.  Introduction  of  Greek  military 
tactics,  much  improved  by  Roman  experience,  and  the 
addition  of  Italian  weapons ;  military  pay  introduced ;  the 
draining  of  Lake  Velinus,  by  which  a  large  portion  of 
fertile  land  is  gained  for  agriculture. 

5.  List  of  Religious  Feasts  of  Early  Rome  (Mommsen). 
The  first  month  of  the  Roman  year  was  March.  Then 
came  the  great  three-days'  festival  of  Mars,  the  god  of  war, 
and  a  feast  for  the  deities  who  presided  at  the  birth  of 
children.  In  April,  sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  nourish- 
ing earth,  to  the  goddesses  who  favored  the  germination 
and  growth  of  the  crops,  and  the  increase  of  herds;  to 
Jupiter,  as  protector  of  vines  and  vats ;  and  to  Rust, 
the  enemy  of  grain.  In  May,  came  another  day 
for  Mars,  a  day  to  propitiate  the  god  hostile  to  the 
vines,  and  three  days  sacred  to  the  spirits  of  the  dead. 
Vesta,  goddess  of  the  hearth,  the  goddess  of  birth,  and 
the  Penates,  guardians  of  the  store-chamber,  were  honored 
in  June.  The  summer-grove  festival  came  in  July,  to- 
gether with  a  day  sacred  to  the  gods  of  the  sea.  In 
August,  came  a  wine-feast,  sacrifices  to  the  gods  of  the 
harbor  and  river,  twin  festivals  to  the  god  and  goddess 
of  harvest,  and  a  day  for  Vulcan,  god  of  fire  and  smith- 
work.  October  saw  the  consecration  of  arms  to  Mars,  a 
thanksgiving  to  Jupiter,  as  the  wine-god,  and  a  festival  for 


144  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

the  fountain-deities.  In  December  occurred  thanksgivings 
for  the  blessings  of  the  granary,  the  festivals  of  seed-sowing 
and  of  the  shortest  day.  In  January,  feasts  for  the  god- 
dess of  magic  spells ;  February  closed  the  list  with  the 
feast  of  Lupercalia,  sacred  to  the  wolf  of  Mars;  days  for 
Faunus,  the  shepherd-god;  for  departed  spirits ;  and  for  the 
consecrated  boundary-stones  of  the  fields.  All  the  days 
of  the  full  moon  were  dedicated  to  Jupiter,  as  god  of  the 
sky.  Meanwhile,  in  every  house  were  household  gods, 
especially  the  Lares  or  the  spirits  of  dead  ancestors,  to 
whom  it  was  always  the  first  duty  of  the  house-father,  on 
returning  home,  to  pay  his  devotions,  and  to  whom  was 
assigned  some  share  of  every  meal. 


STUDY    ON   4,   5,  AND   THE   PICTURES. 

What  sort  of  works  are  notably  absent  from  this  list  ?  [Compare  with 
Greek  lists.]  With  what  sorts  of  life  are  all  these  works  connected  ? 
What  evident  relation  between  Greece  and  Rome  ?  What  new  mode 
of  construction  do  you  find  in  the  Roman  work  ?  What  do  you  find 
to  admire  in  the  specimen  of  Roman  work  given  ?  With  what  is  art 
connected,  so  far  as  there  is  any  ?  What  do  we  know  of  the  number 
of  the  Roman  gods  from  this  list  ?  Of  their  rank  ?  Their  relation  to 
human  affairs?  The  way  to  gain  their  favor?  With  what  sort  of 
affairs  are  they  connected  ?  Why  did  the  Romans  worship  them  ? 
Make  a  list  of  Roman  occupations.  Which  lead  in  importance? 


6.  Note  on  Vocabulary. 

In  the  earliest  Latin  the  names  of  the  following  objects 
are  derived  from  the  Greek,  or  from  the  East  through 
the  Greek :  linen,  purple,  ivory,  the  wine-jug  and  wine- 
bowl, mortar,  the  measuring-rod,  a  balance,  a  lyre,  a 
stage.  From  the  Greeks  came  many  nautical  terms, 
names  of  coins  and  measures,  and  even  the  Latin  alpha- 
bet itself. 


STUDY   ON   REGAL   AND   PR^E-PUNIC    HOME.  145 

7.   Remains  of  the  Tivelve  Tables,  or  the  Earliest  Written 
Laiv  of  Rome,  dating  from  about  451  B.C. 

"  A  foreigner  can  gain  no  property  in  a  thing  by  long 
possession.  If  a  citizen  confess  a  debt,  or  be  adjudged  to 
pay  it,  he  shall  be  allowed  thirty  lawful  days  to  make  pay- 
ment ;  after  that  time  he  may  be  arrested.  ...  If  he  then 
do  not  pay  or  find  somebody  to  pay  for  him,  the  creditor 
may  take  him  away  and  bind  him  with  cords  or  with 
fetters,  which  must  not  be  more  than  fifteen  pounds  weight, 
...  the  creditor  may  keep  the  debtor  sixty  days  in  chains, 
and  in  the  course  of  that  time  shall  present  him  for  three 
successive  fair  days,  .  .  .  and  publicly  notify  the  debt.  If 
there  be  more  creditors  than  one,  after  the  three  fair 
days  they  may  cut  up  the  debtor  or  sell  him  beyond 
the  Tiber." 

"A  father  may  kill  at  its  birth  a  child  monstrously 
deformed.  He  shall  have  a  right  of  life  and  death  over 
all  his  lawful  children,  and  also  of  selling  them.  If  a 
father  sell  his  child  thrice,  the  child  shall  afterwards  be 
free  from  him.  .  .  .  Howsoever  a  father  of  a  family 
directs  by  will,  as  to  his  property,  or  the  guardianship  of 
his  children,  such  shall  be  the  law." 

******* 

"He  who  has  by  incantation  blasted  another's  corn,  or 
who  has  privily  by  night  fed  down  or  cut  up  arable 
produce,  shall  be  put  to  death  by  hanging  him  as  a  victim 
to  Ceres.1  .  .  .  He  who  has  wilfully  and  maliciously  set 
fire  to  a  house,  or  to  a  stack  of  corn  piled  up  against  a 
house,  shall  be  bound,  beaten  with  rods,  and  burnt  alive ; 
but  if  he  has  done  so  accidentally,  he  shall  compensate 
the  loss;  if  Unable  to  make  compensation,  let  him  be 
slightly  chastised.  He  who  slightly  insults  another  shall 
be  fined  twenty-five  pounds  of  copper.  If  any  one  publicly 
1  The  goddess  of  the  harvest. 


14G  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

defame  another,  or  make  verses1  to  his  disgrace  or  injury, 
let  him  be  beaten  with  a  stick.  If  he  break  another's  limb, 
unless  he  can  settle  with  him,  he  shall  undergo  retaliation. 
If  he  break  the  jaw-bone  of  a  free  man,  he  shall  pay  three 
hundred  pounds  of  copper;  if  of  a  slave,  one  hundred  and 
fifty.  .  .  . 

"Let  there  be  no  exceptional  laws  in  favor  of  individuals. 
.  .  .  Let  no  capital  punishment  be  pronounced  against  a 
Roman  citizen,  except  in  the  Great  Assembly  of  the  peo- 
ple. ...  If  any  one  incite  an  enemy  (against  Rome),  or 
betray,  or  deliver  up  to  the  enemy,  a  citizen-,  let  it  be  a 
capital  offense. 

"Let  not  a  dead  man  be  buried  or  burnt  within  the  city. 
.  .  .  Let  not  the  funeral-pile  be  made  of  carved  wood. 
Let  there  be  no  more  than  three  mourning-women  and 
ten  flute-players.  .  .  .  Let  the  anointing  of  slaves  and 
the  handing  round  of  liquors  be  abolished.  Let  no  per- 
fumed liquids  be  sprinkled  upon  the  deceased.  Let  no 
long  garlands  nor  altars  covered  with  perfumes  be  carried 
before  the  corpse.  But,  if  the  deceased  has  gained  a 
crown  of  honor  by  his  bravery,  let  the  praise  of  himself 
and  his  ancestors  be  celebrated,  and  let  it  be  lawful  that 
the  crown  be  placed  before  the  corpse,  both  within  doors 
and  when  it  is  carried  forth.  .  .  . 

"Let  that  which  the  people  has  last  ordained  be  settled 
law.  Let  there  be  no  right  of  marriage  between  the 
patricians  and  the  plebeians." 

STUDY  ON  6  AND  7. 

What  does  the  vocabulary  tell  us  of  the  early  relations  of  Phoe- 
nicia,  Greece,  and  Latium?  Make  a  list  of  the  .arts  and  sciences 
brought  from  outside  into  Italy.  Which  of  these  came  from  Pho3- 
nicia?  Which  from  Greece?  Reasons. 

1  "The  trade  of  a  poet;"  says  Cato,  "in  former  times  was  not  respected; 
if  any  one  occupied  himself  with  it,  he  was  called  an  idler." 


STUDY   ON   REGAL   AND   PR^E-PUNIC    ROME.  147 

What  is  the  spirit  of  the  Roman  laws  in  regard  to  the  foreigner  ? 
The  debtor  ?  What  form  of  family  existed  in  early  Rome  ?  What 
classes  of  people,  and  how  was  each  regarded  ?  From  what  did  these 
laws  protect  people  ?  What  classes  ?  Select  those  which  you  would 
describe  as  "sumptuary."  Where  have  you  found  such  laws  before? 

In  General.  — What  is  the  ideal  of  the  early  Romans?  What  is 
their  attitude  to  the  fine  arts  ?  How  does  their  political  constitution 
discourage  oratory?  (See  Constitutions.)  Is  the  individual  for  the 
state,  or  vice  versa?  Proofs.  (See  Constitutions,  as  well  as  other 
work.)  Give  two  proofs  that  the  Romans  were  practical. 

8.  Stories  from  lAvy. 
a.    Cincinnatus  the  Dictator,  fifth  century  B.C. 

In  time  of  great  danger  from  the  Sabines,  it  was  determined 
to  make  Cincinnatus  dictator.  This  man,  "the  sole  hope  of 
the  Roman  people,"  cultivated  a  farm  of  four  acres.  "  There, 
either  leaning  on  a  stake  in  a  ditch  which  he  was  digging,  or 
.  .  .  ploughing,  .  .  .  being  requested  by  the  ambassadors  to 
listen  to  the  commands  of  the  Senate,"  he  was  saluted  Dictator 
of  Rome. 

Going  immediately  thither,  he  led  the  citizens  against  their 
foes,  and  soon  returned  victorious.  "  The  leaders  of  the 
enemy  were  led  before  his  car ;  ...  his  army  followed,  laden 
with  spoil."  Having  finished  his  task,  he  resigned  his  dictator- 
ship on  the  sixteenth  day  of  holding  it,  and  returned  to  his 
farm. 

6.  "  Publius  Valerius,  allowed  by  universal  consent  to  be  the 
ablest  man  in  Rome,  .  .  .  died  in  the  height  of  his  glory,  but  so 
poor  that  means  to  defray  the  expenses  of  his  funeral  were 
wanting,"  and  he  was  buried  at  the  public  charge. 

c.  Plutarch  tells  of  Manius  Curio,  "  who,  though  he  was 
the  greatest  man  in  Rome,  had  subdued  the  most  warlike 
nations,  and  driven  Pyrrhus  out  of  Italy,  cultivated  a  little 
spot  of  ground  with  his  own  hands,  and  after  three  triumphs 
lived  in  a  cottage.  Here  the  ambassadors  of  the  Samnites 
found  him  in  the  chimney-corner,  dressing  turnips,  and  offered 
him  a  large  present  of  gold  ;  but  he  absolutely  refused  it,  and 


148  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

gave  them  this  answer :  A  man  who  can  be  satisfied  with 
such  a  supper  hath  no  need  of  gold ;  and  I  think  it  were 
more  glorious  to  conquer  the  owners  of  it  than  to  have  it 
myself." 

d.    The    Gauls  in  Rome,  390  B.C. 

"  As  there  was  not  a  hope  that  the  city  could  be  defended,  so 
small  a  number  of  troops  now  remained,  it  was  determined  that 
the  youth  fit  for  military  service  and  the  abler  part  of  the  senate 
.  .  .  should  retire  within  the  citadel  .  .  .  and  .  .  .  thence  .  .  .  de- 
fend the  deities  .  .  .  and  the  Roman  name."  The  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple were  to  be  left  undefended.  "  And  in  order  that  the  plebeians 
.  .  .  might  bear  the  thing  with  greater  resignation,  the  aged 
men,  who  had  enjoyed  triumphs  and  consulships  .  .  .  declared 
that  they  would  die  along  with  them  and  .  .  .  not  burden  the 
scanty  stores  of  the  armed  men  ;  .  .  .  and  having  returned  to 
their  houses,  they  awaited  the  enemy's  coming  with  minds  .  .  . 
prepared  for  death.  Such  of  them  as  had  borne  offices,  .  .  . 
arraying  themselves  in  the  most  magnificent  garments  worn 
by  persons  riding  in  triumph,  seated  themselves  in  their  ivory 
chairs,  in  the  middle  of  their  halls.  .  .  .  The  Gauls  .  .  .  enter- 
ing the  city  next  day  .  .  .  beheld  with  a  sort  of  veneration  men 
sitting  in  the  porches  of  the  palaces  who  .  .  .  bore  a  striking 
resemblance  to  gods  in  the  majest}'  of  their  looks  and  the 
gravity  of  their  countenances.  Whilst  they  stood  gazing 
on  these  as  on  statues  .  .  .  one  of  them  roused  the  anger 
of  a  Gaul  by  striking  him  .  .  .  while  the  latter  was  strok- 
ing his  beard."  This  act  broke  the  spell  under  which  the 
barbarians  seemed  to  be,  and  they  slew  the  senators  where  they 
sat. 

The  Gauls  then  sacked  and  burned  the  city  and  at  last 
attacked  the  Capitol.1  Meanwhile,  Camillus,  who  had  been 
exiled  from  Rome  by  the  people,  knowing  their  great  peril, 
calling  many  of  the  countrymen  to  arms,  slaughtered  numbers 
of  the  Gauls  as  they  roamed  the  fields  for  plunder ;  and 
1  The  hill  fortress  of  Rome  where  the  chief  temple  of  Jupiter  stood. 


STUDY   ON   REGAL   AND   PR^E-PUNIC    HOME.  149 

presently,  the  Romans  without  the  city,  desiring  a  man  to  lead 
them  against  the  common  enemy,  "  resolved  that  Camillas 
should  be  sent  for  .  .  .  but  not  until  the  Senate  at  Rome  was 
first  consulted.  .  .  .  For  this  purpose  a  spirited  youth  .  .  . 
offered  his  services,  and  .  .  .  made  his  way  into  the  Capitol  over 
a  portion  of  the  rock  .  .  .  neglected  by  the  enemy's  guard,  and 
.  .  .  having  received  a  decree  of  the  Senate  that  Camillus 
should  be  ...  appointed  Dictator  .  .  .  passed  back  the  same 
way." 

Meanwhile,  at  Rome  "the  time  had  come  when  a  sacrifice 
from  the  Fabian  family  was  due  on  the  Quirinal  Hill."  To  per- 
form this,  "Caius  Fabius  .  .  .  descended  from  the  Capitol  .  .  . 
passed  out  through  the  midst  of  the  enemy  .  .  .  and  after  duly 
performing  .  .  .  the  sacred  rites,  came  back  with  the  same  firm 
countenance  and  gait,  confident  that  the  gods  were  propitious, 
whose  worship  he  had  not  neglected  when  prohibited  by  the 
fear  of  death."  The  men  of  the  citadel  were  now  suffering 
from  famine,  but  yet  spared  the  geese  "as  being  sacred  to 
Juno,"  a  circumstance  of  importance,  since  b}-  their  cacklings 
they  aroused  the  sentinels  upon  a  night  when  the  Gauls  were 
ascending  an  unguarded  part  of  the  Capitol.  At  last  the  Gauls 
and  the  men  of  the  citadel,  wearied  out,  were  about  to  come  to 
terms,  when  Camillus  appeared  with  fresh  forces,  and  compelled 
the  Gauls  to  retire. 

It  was  now  necessary  to  rebuild  Rome,  but  many  of  the 
plebeians  were  desirous  of  removing  to  Veii,  where  man}' 
dwellings  still  stood  empty.  But  Camillus  argued  with  them, 
"'Consider  the  events  of  these  latter  years.  .  .  .  You  will 
find  that  all  things  succeeded  with  us  whilst  we  followed  the 
gods,  and  failed  when  we  neglected  them.  .  .  .  Though  de- 
serted by  gods  and  men,  still  we  intermitted  not  the  worship  of 
the  gods.  Accordingly  they  have  restored  to  us  our  country. 
We  possess  a  city  founded  under  auspices  and  auguries  ;  not  a 
spot  is  there  in  it  that  is  not  full  of  religious  rites  and  of  the  gods. 
...  Is  it  right  that  these  sacred  things,  coeval  with  the  city, 
.  .  .  should  be  abandoned  to  profanation?  The  assemblies  of 


160  STUDIES   IN    GENEEAL   HISTORY. 

the  Centuries  .  .  .  where  can  they  be  held  under  auspices, 
unless  where  they  are  wont  [to  be  held]  ?  .  .  .  For  my  part 
I  can  see  nothing  more  impious.'  .  .  .  Camillas  is  said  to  have 
moved  them  also  by  other  parts  of  his  speech,  but  chiefly  by 
that  which  related  to  religious  matters.  But  an  expression 
seasonably  uttered  determined  the  matter  while  still  undecided ; 
for  when  some  troops  .  .  .  passed  through  the  Forum  in  their 
march,  a  centurion  .  .  .  cried  out,  l  Standard-bearer,  fix  your 
standard !  It  is  best  for  us  to  remain  here.'  Which  expres- 
sion being  heard,  both  the  Senate  came  out  from  the  senate- 
house,  and  all  cried  out  that  the}'  embraced  the  omen,  and  .  .  . 
the  building  of  the  city  commenced." 

e.    The  Judgment  of  Manlius  and  the  Devotion  of  Decius. 

During  the  Latin  war  of  340—338,  "  Manlius  and  Decius 
being  consuls,  it  is  said  that  there  appeared  to  both  .  .  .  during 
sleep,  the  same  form  of  a  man  larger  and  more  majestic  than 
human,  who  said,  '  Of  the  one  side  a  general,  of  the  other  an 
army,  is  due  to  the  infernal  deities  and  to  mother-earth ;  from 
whichever  army  a  general  shall  devote  [to  death]  himself  and 
the  legions  of  the  enemy,  to  that  army  shall  belong  the 
victory.'"  In  the  morning,  the  consuls  "having  brought 
together  the  lieutenant-generals  and  tribunes  and  having  openly 
expounded  to  them  the  commands  of  the  gods,  settled  .  .  .  that 
on  whichsoever  wing  the  Roman  people  should  commence  to 
give  wa}',  the  consul  on  that  side  should  devote  himself  [to 
death]  for  the  Roman  people."  At  the  same  time  it  was 
ordered  that  no  one  should  leave  his  appointed  place  in  order  to 
fight  the  enemy.  Now  it  happened  that  the  son  of  Manlius, 
being  sent  out  to  reconnoitre,  was  provoked  into  a  contest,  in 
which  however  he  was  victorious.  "  When  the  consul  heard 
this,  ...  he  ordered  an  assembly  to  be  summoned.  .  .  .  When 
these  assembled  in  great  numbers,  he  said:  'Since  you, 
Titus  Manlius,  revering  neither  the  consular  power  nor  a 
father's  majesty,  have  fought  against  the  enemy  out  of  your 
post  contrary  to  our  orders,  and  .  .  .  since  either  the  authority 


STUDY   ON   REGAL   AND   PR^E-PUNIC    ROME.  151 

of  consuls  is  to  be  established  loy  your  death,  or  by  your  for- 
giveness to  be  forever  annulled ;  .  .  .  go,  lictor,  bind  him  to 
the  stake.'  .  .  .  The  body  of  the  youth,  being  covered  with 
spoils,  was  burned  on  a  pile."1  Soon  afterwards  the  Romans 
marched  forth  to  battle,  Decius  commanding  the  left.  The 
Roman  spearmen  on  this  side  were  the  first  to  give  way,  where- 
upon the  consul  Decius  called  upon  the  Pontifex  Maximus  to 
dictate  to  him  the  words  in  which  he  must  devote  himself. 
"  The  pontiff  directed  him  to  take  the  gown  called  prcetexta, 
and  with  his  head  covered,  .  .  .  standing  upon  a  spear  placed 
under  his  feet,  to  sa}*  these  words :  '  Jupiter,  father  Mars  .  .  . 
ye  divinities  under  whose  power  we  and  our  enemies  are,  I  pray 
you  .  .  .  that  you  will  prosperously  grant  strength  and  victory 
to  the  Roman  people  .  .  .  and  that  ye  may  afflict  the  enemies  of 
the  Roman  people  .  .  .  with  terror,  dismay,  and  death.  In 
such  manner  as  I  have  expressed  in  words,  so  do  I  devote  the 
legions  and  auxiliaries  of  the  enemy,  together  with  myself,  to 
the  infernal  deities  ...  in  behalf  of  the  republic.'  .  .  .  Having 
uttered  this  prayer,  ...  he,  girding  himself,  .  .  .  and  fully 
armed,  mounted  his  horse  and  rushed  into  the  midst  of  the 
enemy.  .  .  .  But  when  he  fell,  overwhelmed  with  darts,  in- 
stantly the  Latins,  thrown  into  manifest  consternation,  took  to 
flight ;  "  while  the  Romans,  "  their  minds  being  free  from  relig- 
ious dread,"  fought  with  new  ardor  and  won  the  day. 

STUDY  ON   8. 

What  do  the  incidents,  a,  b,  c,  show  us  of  the  style  of  Roman  life  ? 
Of  what  they  cared  for?  Throughout  the  story  d,  what  seems  to  be 
regarded  as  of  prime  importance?  Name  three  or  four  qualities  of 
character  shown  by  the  patricians.  What  characteristic  appears  in 
the  fact  that  Camillus  will  not  lead  the  army  until  the  Senate  has 
appointed  him  ? 

In  story  e,  what  qualities  displayed  by  Manlius?  By  Decius? 
What  do  we  learn  of  religion  and  the  importance  of  forms?  Of 
superstition?  Illustrate  the  same  things  from  d; 

1  A  similar  story  was  told  of  Brutus,  one  of  the  first  consuls  of  Rome, 
who  condemned  his  own  sons  to  death  for  treason  to  the  state. 


152 


STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTOKY. 


B.    II.    STUDY    ON    REPUBLICAN   ROME,  PUNIC   PERIOD, 
264-146  B.C. 

Contemporary  authority :  Polybius. 
Other  original  authorities  :  Livy,  Plutarch. 
Chief  modern  authority  :  Mommsen,  Duruy. 


Note  on  Carthage  and  Carthaginian  Dominion.  —  At  264  B.C. 
the  Carthaginian  dominion  included  a  good  portion  of  Sicily,  Corsica, 
and  Sardinia,  and  parts  of  the  Spanish  coast.  With  these  modifica- 
tions, the  map  below  fairly  represents  the  territories  ruled  or  influ- 
enced respectively  by  Rome  and  Carthage. 


ROUTE  of  HANNIBAL  „..». 
ROMAN  DOMINION 
CARTHAGINIAN   ,, 


AT2I8B.C. 


Carthage  was  herself  originally  a  Tyrian  colony;  for  the  ground 
she  held  she  paid  rent  to  the  native  Africans,  even  after  she  was 
highly  prosperous ;  and,  although  protected  by  deserts,  by  seas,  and 
by  distance,  she  occasionally  paid  tribute  to  the  Persian  and  Egyptian 
kings.  Her  government  was  an  aristocracy  of  wealth,  and  her  armies 
were  mercenaries  obtained  in  the  best  market. 

It  was  said  in  antiquity  that  every  "foreign  mariner  found  sailing  in 
the  western  Mediterranean  was  seized  and  drowned  by  the  Cartb» 
ginians. 


STUDY    ON    REPUBLICAN    ROME,    PUNIC    PERIOD.       153 

STUDY   ON    MAP   AND    NOTE. 

What  great  geographical  contrast  between  the  Roman  and  Cartha- 
ginian dominion  at  264  B.C.?  What  occupation  indicated  by  the 
distribution  of  Carthaginian  lands?  Explain  how  every  fact  men- 
tioned in  the  note  is  connected  with  this  occupation.  What  was  the 
Carthaginian  ideal?  How  do  you  fancy  the  Carthaginian  compared 
with  the  Roman  civilization  ?  Why  ? 

1.   Chronological  Summary  of  the  Greater  Events  of  the 
Punic  Period,  265-201. 

The  Mamertines,  a  band  of  Campanian  mer- 
cenaries, hold  the  Sicilian  Messana  and  are  hard 
beset  by  the  Syracusan  Greeks.  Among  them, 
one  party  is  for  asking  Roman,  the  other,  Carthaginian,  aid. 
The  former  party  triumphs,  sends  an  embassy  to  Rome, 
whence  aid  is  voted  and  troops  are  sent.  Before  they 
reach  Messana,  however,  the  Carthaginian  party  brings 
about  a  peace,  and  sends  word  to  the  Romans  that  their 
presence  is  no  longer  necessary.  The  Romans,  however, 
persist  in  their  advance,  expel  the  Carthaginian  garrison, 
and  obtain  possession  of  Messana  for  themselves.  There- 
upon, the  First  Punic  War  begins. 

The  Romans  build  a  fleet.  —  Indecisive  war  in 
Sicily,  Africa,  and  the  Sicilian  waters.  Four 
fleets  and  four  armies  and  at  least  a  sixth  of  the 
citizens  of  Rome  perish. 

Private  Roman  citizens  equip  a  new  fleet  of 
two  hundred  ships  manned  by  60,000  men,  and 
beat  the  Carthaginians,  who  at  once  sue  for  peace.  They 
gain  it  on  condition  of  surrendering  Sicily  and  paying 
nearly  $4,000,000. 

Interval  between  First  and  Second  Punic 
War. —  Carthaginian  mercenaries,  denied  their 
full  pay,  mutinjr,  and  ar3  joined  by  the  Libyan 
subjects  of  Carthage.  Thereupon,  the  mercenary  garri- 


154  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

sons  in  Sardinia  offer  to  surrender  that  island  to  Rome. 
Rome  accepts  it,  and  soon  adds  Corsica.  Appealed  to  by 
Greek  and  Italian  mariners  and  merchants,  she  puts  down 
the  Illyrian  pirates.  She  thus  gains  dominion  in  Illyria, 
becomes  the  ally  of  several  Greek  towns,  and  is  admitted 
to  share  in  the  Greek  games  and  the  Greek  worship. 
Attacked  by  the  Kelts  of  northern  Italy,  she  conquers 
them,  and  extends  her  power  to  the  Alps,  planting 
colonies  and  building  roads  throughout  her  new  posses- 
sions. She  also  accepts  as  allies  several  Spanish  towns, 
notably  Saguntum. 

Hamilcar,  general-in-chief  of  the  Carthaginians,  retain- 
ing his  command  by  a  free  use  of  money  at  home,  subdues 
revolted  Libya,  and  makes  of  Spain  a  Carthaginian  prov- 
ince, whose  wealth  maintains  a  well-trained  Spanish  army. 
At  his  death  this  force  passes  under  the  command  of 
Hannibal,  his  son. 

Hannibal  besieges  and  takes  Saguntum,  and  the  Second 
Punic  War  begins.  (See  map,  p.  152.) 

Hannibal  leads  his  Spanish  and  Carthaginian 
army  over  the  Alps  into  Gaul,  where  he  is  joined 
at  once  by  the  Kelts,  who  seize  this  chance  to 
revolt  from  Rome,  and  with  whom  he  has  already  formed 
alliances.  Thence  he  marches  through  Itaty,  which  he 
harries  and  plunders,  and  nearly  subdues  by  four  great 
victories.  The  last  of  these  is  at  Cannse,  where  one- 
seventh  of  the  Italian  forces  perish.  Thereupon,  Syracuse 
and  Macedon  ally  themselves  with  Carthage ;  many  of  the 
Italian  towns,  to  which  Hannibal  promises  liberty,  accept 
him  as  friend,  though  the  colonies  stand  by  Rome. 

Rome  now  decrees  that  the  days  of  mourning  for  the 
dead  of  Cannse  shall  be  shortened  ;  that  new  legions  shall 
be  at  once  enrolled,  including  criminals  and  slaves ;  that 
new  weapons  shall  at  once  be  forged,  and  that,  meanwhile, 


STUDY    ON    KEPUBLICAN    ROME,    PUNIC    PERIOD.      155 

arms  shall  be  taken  from  the  temples,  from  the  dedicated 
spoils  of  former  victories.  Now  follow  the  siege  and  fall 
of  Syracuse;  Macedon  is  brought  to  terms;  the  Scipios, 
who  sailed  for  Spain  when  Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps, 
finally  wrest  it  from  Carthage ;  town  by  town  Italy 
returns  to  Rome ;  the  Carthaginians  are  niggardly  of  help 
to  Hannibal;  still  the  war  holds  on.  Rome  is  pressed  for 
funds ;  but  her  richer  soldiers  offer  to  fight  without  pay ; 
the  creditors  of  the  state  delay  or  decline  to  demand  their 
dues,  and  again  a  fleet  is  fitted  forth  by  private  effort. 
Hasdrubal,  Hannibal's  brother,  now  appears  in  the  north 
of  Italy,  but  is  thoroughly  defeated.  The  greatest  of  the 
Scipios  now  sails  for  Africa  to  threaten  Carthage  itself. 
Hannibal  is  recalled,  and  the  battle  of  Zama  is  fought, 
resulting  in  complete  and  decisive  victory  for  Scipio  and 
Rome. 

Carthage  accepts  the    following   terms :    inde- 
pendence within   her   own   boundaries ;  the  sur- 


render of  all  her  war-ships  but  ten ;  an  annual  tribute  of 
$240,000  for  fifty  years;  the  formal  cession  of  Spain, 
Sardinia,  and  Corsica  to  Rome ;  the  acknowledgment 
of  Massinissa  as  king  of  Numidia. 

STUDY  ON   I. 

What  do  we  know  of  the  comparative  powef  and  reputation  of 
Rome  and  Carthage  at  264  B.C.,  and  how  do  we  know  it?  What 
spirit  was  shown  by  the  Romans  in  the  First  Punic  War?  What  in 
the  second,  and  on  what  occasion?  Compare  Carthage  with  Rome  in 
this  respect.  On  what  and  on  whom  was  Carthage  dependent  for  suc- 
cess in  these  two  wars  ?  On  what  and  whom,  Rome  ?  Which  had  the 
surer  dependence?  Why  did  Carthage  fail?  Where  do  we  find 
greatness  on  the  Carthaginian  side  in  the  second  war?  Where  on 
the  Roman? 

2.   Summary  of  Events,  201-146. 

Rome  degrades  from  their  former  rank  and  privilege  all 
who  failed  her  in  the  war  with  Hannibal,  and  much  of 


156  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Italy  thus  becomes  purely  subject  territory,  throughout 
which  the  Romans  build  fortresses,  extend  roads,  and  settle 
colonies  of  Punic  veterans. 

The  Romans  appealed  to  by  the  Greeks  for  aid  against 
Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  enter  into  war  with  him,  aided 
by  Numidisna  and  Illyrians. 

The  Macedonian  war  ends  with   the  following 
treaty :  —  that  Philip  shall  lose    all  his    posses- 


sions in  Asia  Minor,  Thrace,  and  Greece ;  shall  make  no 
alliance  without  the  consent  of  Rome,  nor  make  war 
against  civilized  states;  that  his  army  shall  not  exceed 
5000  men,  and  that  all  but  five  decked  ships  shall  be 
given  to  the  Romans ;  that  he  shall  send  troops  to  Rome 
when  requested,  and  pay  $1,250,000.  Greece  is  declared 
free  from  Macedonian  and  all  foreign  dominion. 

Antiochus  the  Great,  of  Asia,  having  harassed 
or  taken  possession  of  various  Asiatic  Greek 
cities,  lands  in  Europe,  and  attacks  the  Helles- 
pontine  Greeks ;  Rome  interferes  in  their  behalf,  and  is 
thus  drawn  into  an  Asiatic  war  with  Antiochus. 
I  '  j  Battle  of  Magnesia  and  treaty  of  peace  between 
I  '  I  Antiochus  and  Romans,  by  which  Antiochus  sur- 
renders Asia  Minor  west  of  the  Halys  and  the  Taurus, 
all  his  European  claims,  all  but  ten  vessels  of  his  fleet,  and 
pays  to  Rome  more  than  $19,000,000.  The  Asiatic  Greeks 
are  for  the  most  part  declared  independent. 

Accumulating   complaints    against   the    Mace- 
donian power.      Greece  divided  into  parties,  of 
which  one  looks   to    Rome,  the  other  to   Mace- 
don,  for  aid. 

War  between  Rome  and  Macedon,  each  aided 
by  a  strong  Greek  party  ;    the  battle  of  Pydna 
and  the  fall  of  the  Macedonian  king  close  the 
war ;  and  the  following  terms  of  peace  are  agreed  upon : 


STUDY   ON   REPUBLICAN   ROME,    PUNIC   PERIOD.      157 

"  The  Macedonians  are  to  live  free  .  .  .  governed  by  their 
own  laws  and  .  .  .  magistrates,  and  .  .  .  pay  to  the  Roman 
people  one-half  of  the  taxes  they  have  paid  to  their  kings." 
At  first,  they  are  not  allowed  to  work  their  own  mines  of 
gold  and  silver.  Laws  are  given  them  by  the  Romans, 
and  they  are  divided  into  four  districts,  between  which 
there  is  to  be  no  intermarriage,  no  free  trade  in  land.  As 
for  the  Greeks,  they  come  partly  under  the  protection,  and 
in  some  cases  under  the  subjection,  of  Rome. 

In  Spain,  revolt,  brigandage,  and  piracy ;  in 
Greece  and  Macedonia,  constant  quarrels  of  par- 
ties, of  cities ;  in  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egypt, 
endless  wars,  and  difficulties  among  kings  and  princes  over 


MAN  DOMINION 

»     DEPENDENCIESIIIIWP^B.C. 


the  succession  to  various  thrones,  and  the  ownership  of 
various  territories ;  from  all  these  places  constant  appeals 
come  to  Rome  for  judgment  or  for  aid.  The  result  of 
Roman  interference  is  that  Macedonia,  Greece,  Spain,  and 
most  of  Asia  Minor  are  made  into  Roman  provinces,  pure 
and  simple  ;  that  is,  they  are  governed  directly  from  Rome 
by  an  officer  called  a  Praetor  or  Proconsul,  who  keeps  the 
peace,  governs,  collects  the  provincial  tribute  for  Rome ; 
the  Proconsuls  are  changed  from  year  to  year,  and  gain 
their  office  by  election  and  appointment  from  Rome.  The 


158  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Carthaginians,  meanwhile,  are  plundered  and  robbed  by 
Massinissa,  king  of  Numidia.  Unable  to  obtain  a  fair 
hearing  at  Rome,  they  at  length  attempt  to  defend  them- 
selves. Rome  now  declares  war  against  Carthage,  on  the 
ground  that  the  latter  has  attacked  Massinissa,  her  ally ; 
the  Carthaginians  offer  complete  surrender;  Rome  de- 
mands all  their  stores  and  munitions  of  war  by  land  and 
sea,  the  total  destruction  of  their  present  city,  and  a 
promise  that  they  shall  dwell  in  the  future  at  least  ten 
miles  from  the  coast.  Thereupon,  the  Third  Punic  Wai- 
begins,  closing  in  146  with  the  utter  destruction  of 
Carthage.  The  city  is  burned,  its  site  is  turned  with  the 
plow,  its  territory  becomes  the  Roman  province  of  Africa. 

STUDY  ON   2. 

What  spirit  shown  by  Rome  in  the  Third  Punic  War  ?  In  the  set- 
tlement of  Italian  affairs?  Of  Greek?  Why  could  not  the  Greeks 
remain  independent?  What  indication  have  we  that,  on  the  whole, 
Rome  was  a  good  ruler  in  Italy  ? 

Look  over  the  causes  of  all  the  wars  of  this  period ;  what  do  they  indi- 
cate of  the  comparative  greatness  of  Rome  among  the  Mediterranean 
lands,  and  how  do  they  show  this  ?  What  kind  of  greatness  had  she  the 
reputation  for?  Name  three  things  that  Rome  gains  from  these  wars. 

In  what  geographical  order  does  Rome  win  her  dominion?  How 
does  she  confirm  it  ?  What  new  part  enters  into  the  Roman  constitu- 
tion ?  What  principle  of  government,  new  to  Rome,  introduced  with 
it?  In  the  treaty  with  Philip,  197  B.C.,  what  relation  does  Rome 
assume  toward  civilized  states?  Of  what  use  are  her  conquests  to 
the  conquered?  It  is  often  said  that  Rome,  at  the  opening  of  the 
Punic  period,  was  so  great  that  she  must  become  greater.  Explain 
what  this  means  by  reference  to  the  events  of  this  period.  What  lauds 
will  now  be  naturally  added  to  the  Roman  dominion? 

3.   Extracts  from  Livy  Illustrative  of  Second  Punic  War. 

a.    Hannibal  in  the  Alps. 

"On  the  ninth  day  they  came  to  the  summit  of  the  Alps, 
chiefly  through  places  trackless,  and  after  many  mistakes  in 


STUDY    ON    REPUBLICAN   ROME,    PUNIC    PERIOD.      159 

their  way,  which  were  caused  either  by  the  treachery  of  the 
guides,  or  ...  by  entering  valleys  at  random.  .  .  .  For  two 
clays  they  remained  encamped  on  the  summit ;  and  rest  was 
given  to  the  soldiers,  exhausted  with  toil  and  fighting.  ...  On 
the  standards  being  moved  forward  at  daybreak,  when  the 
army  proceeded  slowly  over  places  entirely  blocked  up  with 
snow,  and  languor  and  despair  strongly  appeared  in  the  counte- 
nances of  all,  Hannibal,  having  advanced  before  the  standards, 
and  ordered  the  soldiers  to  halt  on  a  certain  eminence,  whence 
there  was  a  prospect  far  and  wide,  points  out  to  them  Italy  and 
the  plains  of  the  Po  extending  themselves  beneath  the  Alpine 
mountains ;  and  said  '  that  after  the  first,  or,  at  most,  the 
second  battle,  they  would  have  the  citadel  and  capital  of  Italy  in 
their  power  and  possession.'  .  .  .  They  then  came  to  a  rock  .  .  . 
formed  of  such  perpendicular  ledges,  that  a  light-armed  soldier, 
carefully  making  the  attempt,  and  clinging  with  his  hands  to 
the  bushes  and  roots  around,  could  with  difficulty  lower  him- 
self. .  .  .  When  the  cavalry  had  halted  here,  ...  it  was 
announced  to  Hannibal  .  .  .  that  the  rock  was  impassable.  .  .  . 
The  soldiers  being  then  set  to  make  a  way  down  the  cliff,  .  .  . 
having  felled  and  lopped  a  number  of  large  trees  which  grew 
around,  made  a  huge  pile  of  timber ;  and  as  soon  as  a  strong 
wind  fit  for  exciting  the  flames  arose,  they  set  fire  to  it,  and 
pouring  vinegar  on  the  heated  stones,  they  rendered  them  soft 
and  crumbling.  The}-  then  opened  a  way  with  iron  instruments 
through  the  rock  thus  heated  by  the  fire,  and  softened  its  decliv- 
ities by  gentle  windings,  so  that  not  only  the  beasts  of  burden, 
but  also  the  elephants  could  be  led  down.  Four  days  were 
spent  about  this  precipice,  the  beasts  nearly  perishing  of 
hunger." 

6.    Incidents  connected  with  the  Fight  at  Trasimene. 

Before  the  battle,  many  prodigies  were  reported  at  Rome.  It 
was  said  that  u  an  ox  had  of  his  own  accord  ascended  to  the 
third  story  of  a  house  ;  .  .  .  that  the  appearance  of  ships  had 
been  brightly  visible  in  the  sky,  and  that  the  Temple  of  Hope  in 


160  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

the  herb-market  had  been  struck  by  lightning :  .  .  .  that  .  .  . 
figures  resembling  men  dressed  in  white  raiment  had  been  seen 
in  several  places  at  a  distance,  but  had  not  come  close  to  any 
one  ;  that  in  Picenum  it  had  rained  stones."  On  account  of 
these  prodigies,  unusual  prayers,  sacrifices,  and  gifts  to  the 
gods  were  decreed  by  the  state,  and  "greatly  relieved  the 
public  mind." 

Flaminius  was  one  of  the  consuls  for  that  year,  and  he  had 
left  Rome  for  his  army  without  the  customary  auspices  ;  where- 
upon the  Senate  "  unanimously  resolved  that  he  should  be 
recalled  and  brought  back,  and  be  constrained  to  perform  in 
person  every  duty  to  gods  and  men  before  he  went  to  the 
arm)'."  He  did  not,  however,  return,  but  advanced  to  meet 
Hannibal,  and  fell  in  the  disastrous  defeat  of  Lake  Trasimene, 
where  he  had  thus  exhorted  the  soldiers:  "Stand  and  fight; 
for"  you  "  cannot  escape  ...  by  vows  and  prayers  to  the  gods, 
but  by  exertion  and  valor."  After  this  reverse  it  was  deter- 
mined to  appoint  a  dictator ;  but  since  his  nomination  rested 
with  the  consuls,  one  of  whom  was  absent  and  the  other  dead, 
the  people  gave  Fabius  Maximus  the  powers  of  dictator,  with 
the  title  of  pro-dictator.  He  at  once  assembled  the  Senate, 
and,  "  after  he  had  distinctly  proved  to  the  fathers  that  Caius 
Flaminius  had  erred  more  from  neglect  of  the  ceremonies  and 
auspices  than  from  temerity  and  want  of  judgment,"  they 
decreed  new  vows,  festivals,  and  sacrifices  to  the  gods.  "  Divine 
things  having  been  performed  "  with  due  attention  and  care, 
Fabius  turned  his  attention  to  the  needs  of  the  war. 

c.    The  Battle  of  Cannae. 

The  consuls  commanding  on  this  occasion  were  Varro  and 
Paulus  ;  the  desire  of  the  former  was  to  fight,  the  policy  of  the 
latter  to  annoy  the  Carthaginian  forces.  They  held  command 
on  alternate  da3-s,  both  armies  being  in  camp.  Hannibal 
"  provoked  the  enemy  by  a  skirmishing  attack.  .  .  .  Upon  this, 
the  Roman  camp  began  again  to  be  embroiled  by  a  mutinv 
among  the  soldiers  and  the  disagreements  of  the  consuls"; 


STUDY    ON   KEPUBLICAN   HOME,    PUNIC    PERIOD.        161 

but  nothing  was  done,  since  Paulus  was  for  that  day  general. 
But  "  Varro,  on  the  following  day,  .  .  .  without  consulting  his 
colleague,  displayed  the  signal  for  battle,  and  forming  his 
troops,  led  them  across  the  river.  Paulus  followed,  because  he 
could  better  disapprove  of  the  proceeding  than  withhold  his 
assistance."  Thus,  then,  the  Romans  were  led  at  the  battle  of 
Cannae,  where  so  many  of  them  perished.  When  the  news  of 
this  defeat  reached  Rome,  among  other  measures,  "  Quintus 
Fabius  Pictor  was  .  .  .  sent  to  Delphi  to  enquire  of  the  oracle 
by  what  prayers  and  offerings  they  might  appease  the  gods.  .  .  . 
Meanwhile,  certain  extraordinary  sacrifices  were  performed, 
according  to  the  directions  of  the  books  of  the  fates  ;  among 
which  a  Gallic  man  and  woman  and  a  Greek  man  and  woman 
were  [buried]  alive  in  the  cattle-market." 

As  for  the  captives,  the  Senate  refused  to  ransom  them, 
partly  because  they  preferred  slaves  to  men  who  had  allowed 
themselves  to  be  taken  alive  in  the  midst  of  "so  many  examples 
of  courage,"  and  partly  because  "  they  were  neither  willing  to 
drain  the  treasury  .  .  .  nor  to  enrich  Hannibal." 

d.    The  Close  of  the  War. 

The  Second  Punic  War  was  over,  and  the  Carthaginian  ambas- 
sadors came  to  Rome  to  treat  of  peace  ;  and  while  negotiations 
were  going  on,  the  "  tribunes  of  the  people  put  them  the  ques- 
tion as  to  whether  they  willed  and  ordered  that  the  Senate 
should  decree  that  peace  should  be  made  with  the  Cartha- 
ginians? Whom  they  ordered  to  grant  that  peace,  and  whom 
to  conduct  the  army  out  of  Africa?  All  the  tribes  ordered  .  .  . 
that  Publius  Scipio  should  grant  the  peace,  and  .  .  .  conduct 
the  army  home.  Agreeably  to  this  order,  the  Senate  decreed 
that  P.  Scipio  .  .  .  should  make  peace  with  the  Carthaginian 
people." 

The  Carthaginians,  "  finding  difficulty  in  raising  the  first  sum 
of  money  to  be  paid,  as  their  finances  were  exhausted  by  a 
protracted  war,  and,  in  consequence,  great  lamentation  and 
grief  arising  in  the  Senate-house,  it  is  said  that  Hannibal  was 


162 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


observed  laughing,"  and  being  rebuked  for  it,  he  answered, 
'•When  the  spoils  were  torn  down  from  vanquished  Carthage, 
when  you  beheld  her  left  unarmed  and  defenceless  amid  so 
many  armed  nations  of  Africa,  none  heaved  a  sigh.  Now, 
because  a  tribute  is  to  be  levied  from  private  property,  you 
lament  with  one  accord." 

STUDY  ON  3,  a,  6,  c,  d. 

What  greatness  did  Hannibal  display?  What  held  his  army 
together  ?  What  was  their  motive  in  fighting  ?  Compare  in  strength 
with  the  Roman  motive.  Xame  all  the  difficulties  met  in  this  pas- 
sage of  the  Alps. 

What  do  incidents  of  6  show  of  religious  life  among  the  Romans  in 
general?  What  seems  to  have  been  the  religious  attitude  of  Fla- 
minius,  of  Fabius,  and  the  Senate  ?  What  does  the  incident  of  the 
election  of  Fabius  show  the  Roman  people  careful  for?  Where  have 
you  seen  this  same  carefulness  before?  Name  three  qualities  of 
Roman  character  shown  in  the  incidents  of  the  captives. 

What  fault  in  Roman  organization  is  very  plainly  shown  at  Cannae? 
What  Roman  magistrate  was  needed  at  such  a  crisis  ?  Why  ?  What 
characteristics  of  Rome  appear  when  she  receives  news  of  the  defeat  ? 
(See  also  "List  of  Events.")  In  whose  hands  was  the  political 
power  at  Rome  in  reality  ?  In  name  ? 

How  did  the  Carthaginians,  in  this  case,  show  themselves  true  to 
their  character  and  their  ideal  ? 

In  General.  —  Describe  the  ideal  Roman  of  the  period  of  the  Sec- 
ond Punic  War. 

4.  List  of  the  Most  Noteworthy  Men  of  the  Punic  Period. 

Those  marked  *  belong  to  the  period  after  the  close  of 
the  Second  Punic  War. 


Name. 

Birth,  Circumstance. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

^Emilius 
Lepidus, 

*^milius 
Paulus, 

Roman  patrician. 
Roman  patrician. 

Consul;   maker   of  JEmilian   road   in 
North  Italy. 

Consul  ;  conqueror  of  Macedon. 

STUDY   ON   REPUBLICAN   HOME,   PUNIC    PERIOD.        163 


Name. 

Irth,  Circumstance. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

*Andronicus, 

^arentum  ;  a 
slave. 

Presented  first  dramas  ever  seen  at 
Rome  ;  subjects  from  Greek  sources  ; 
translator  of  Homer  into  Latin. 

Caecilius, 

Milan;  Keltic 
slave. 

Author  of  Latin  comedies  after  Greek 
models. 

*Cato  the  Elder, 

loman  plebeian. 

Censor  ;  famous  orator  in  Senate  ;  at- 
tempted to  restore  Roman  manners 
and  morals,  as  before  the  Punic  wars; 

author  of  works  on  agriculture,  law, 
war,  morals,  politics,  and  history. 

*Cato  the  Young- 
er (of  Utica), 

Ionian  plebeian. 

Senatorial  orator;  stoic;  commander 
in  civil  war  in  Africa  for  Pompey. 

*Ennius, 

Apulia;  Italian 
freeman. 

Translator  of  Greek  dramas  ;  author 
of  poem  in  Greek  measure  on 
Punic  wars. 

Fabius  Maximus, 

Roman  patrician. 

Consul  and  Dictator,"  shield  of  Rome," 
and  "  Delayer  "  of  Hannibal. 

Flaminii, 

Roman 

Consuls  ;  makers  of  Flaminian  road. 

plebeians.     ' 

Marcellus, 

Roman 
plebeian. 

Consul  ,  conqueror  of  Syracuse  in 
Second  Punic  War. 

*N3Bvius, 

Campania;  Ro- 
man citizen. 

Translator  of  Greek  dramas  ;  author 
of  political  satires  and  a  poem  on 
the  First  Punic  War. 

*Plautus, 

Umbria;  son  of 
a  freedman. 

Author  of  Latin  comedies  after  Greek 
models. 

*Polybius, 

Greece;  free 
citizen. 

Friend  and  teacher  of  younger  Scipio  ; 
author  of  a  Roman  history. 

Regulus, 

Roman  ; 
patrician(l). 

Consul  ;  commander  in  First  Punic 
War. 

Scipio  Africanus 
the  Elder, 

Roman  ; 
patrician. 

Consul  ;  conqueror  of  Spain,  and 
victor  of  Zama. 

*Scipio  Africa- 
nus  the  Younger 

Roman  ; 
patrician. 

Consul;  conqueror  of   Carthage,  and 
later  victorious  in  Spain. 

*Terence, 

Carthage;  slave. 

Author  of  Latin  comedies  after  Greek 
models. 

164  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTOJJY. 

STUDY  ON   4. 

What  kinds  of  greatness  displayed  by  the  native  Romans  ?  In  what 
class  does  this  greatness  mostly  appear  ?  What  kind  of  greatness  is 
brought  to  Rome  from  outside  ?  Mostly  from  what  sour.ce  ? 

5.  Incidents,  Extracts,  and  Facts  Illustrative  of  Later 
Punic  Period.     (Unref erred  quotations  from  Livy.) 

a.    The  Trial  of  Scipio  and  Others. 

After  the  Second  Punic  War,  Scipio  was  brought  to  trial  on 
the  charges  of  bribery,  and  of  living  too  luxuriously  in  winter- 
quarters  at  Syracuse.  Ordered  to  make  his  defense,  he  said, 
"...  On  the  anniversary  of  this  day  I  fought  with  Hannibal 
and  the  Carthaginians  with  good  success.  .  .  .  Therefore,  .  .  . 
I  will  immediately  go  to  the  Capitol,  there  to  return  my  ac- 
knowledgments ...  to  the  deities  .  .  .  Such  of  you  ...  as  it 
suits  come  with  me  and  beseech  the  gods  that  you  may  have 
commanders  like  myself."  So  he  went  up  to  the  Capitol ;  and 
' '  the  whole  assembly  turned  about  and  followed  "  ;  nor  was  he 
afterward  brought  to  trial,  it  being  said  "  that  Publius  Scipio 
.  .  .  had  risen  to  such  .  .  .  dignity,  that  were  he  to  stand  as  a 
criminal  ...  it  would  reflect  more  disgrace  on  the  Romans  than 
on  him." 

Michelet  tells  us  that  when  a  son-in-law  of  the  great  Fabius, 
Hannibal's  opponent,  was  accused  of  treason,  his  father-in-law 
was  able  to  clear  him  by  simply  stating  that  he  was  innocent. 

When  one  of  the  Metelli  was  accused  of  extortion,  and  doc- 
uments to  prove  it  were  placed  before  the  judges,  the  whole 
tribunal  turned  away  their  eyes,  in  order  not  to  be  convinced 
of  the  guilt  of  one  whose  ancestor  had  won  a  Punic  victory, 
and  many  of  whose  family  had  held  high  office  in  the  state. 


b.    Office-getting  and  holding. 

The  consuls,  censors,  and  other  high  officers  of  Rome  were 
unpaid  ;  for  it  was  thought  beneath  the  dignity  of  a  citizen  to 
serve  the  state  for  pay  ;  yet  men  were  so  eager  to  gain  these 
places,  that  they  spent  thousands  of  dollars  in  getting  up  games 


STUDY   ON   REPUBLICAN   ROME,    PUNIG   PERiOD.        165 

and  shows  to  gain  the  votes  of  the  populace.  Often,  too,  they 
bought  up  quantities  of  foreign  (mostly  Sicilian)  grain,  and 
sold  it  to  the  Romans  for  almost  nothing.  Sometimes  such 
supplies  were  sent  as  gifts  from  the  provincials  to  the  magis- 
trates whose  favor  they  wished  to  gain. 

One  of  the  kings  of  Asia  sometimes  amused  himself  thus  : 
"  Having  assumed  the  Roman  gown  ...  he  used  to  go  about 
the  market-place,  as  he  had  seen  done  by  candidates  for  office 
at  Rome,  saluting  and  embracing  each  of  the  plebeians  .  .  . 
until  at  last  he  obtained  "  mock  office  by  their  votes. 

Says  Cato,  "  He  who  steals  from  a  burgess  ends  his  days  in 
chains  and  fetters  ;  he  who  steals  from  the  community  ends 
them  in  gold  and  purple." 

c.  The  Italian  Allies. 

Even  in  the  Second  Punic  "War  the  burden  of  service  was 
heavier  for  the  Italian  allies  than  for  Rome  ;  in  the  Macedonian 
war  the  legions  took  such  additions  as  were  desirable  from  the 
allies,  with  no  regard  to  a  just  proportion,  so  that  the  Italians 
were  sometimes  twice  as  many  as  the  Romans  ;  in  the  war  with 
Antiochus  reinforcements  were  sent  to  the  consuls,  of  which 
the  allies  furnished  two-thirds  of  the  men  ;  but,  in  the  partition 
of  booty,  they  sometimes  received  only  half  as  much  as  the 
Romans,  while,  in  the  grants  of  conquered  land,  they  were 
given  less  than  a  third  of  a  Roman  soldier's  share. 

In  one  of  the  allied  Italian  towns  a  Roman  consul  caused  the 
magistrates  to  be  flogged  because  they  had  not  supplied  him 
with  provisions.  In  another,  a  praetor  who  wished  to  use  the 
public  baths  expelled  every  one  from  them,  and,  for  some  neg- 
ligence, caused  one  of  the  quaestors  of  the  town  to  be  whipped. 
In  another,  the  wife  of  a  consul  ordei'ed  the  first  magistrate  of 
the  place  to  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

d.  Tlie  Triumph  of  Paulus  for  the  Macedonian  War. 

"All  the  temples  were  open,  and  were  wreathed  with  gar- 
lands and  smoking  with  incense.  .  .  .  Although  the  gorgeous 
spectacle  was  destined  to  occupy  three  days,  as  we  have 


166  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

already  mentioned,  yet  the  first  day  scarcely  sufficed  for  the 
procession  of  the  statues  and  paintings,  which  were  placed  on 
250  chariots.  The  next  day  all  the  most  beautiful  and  most 
magnificent  arms  of  the  Macedonians  were  carried  along  on 
many  wagons ;  and  these  arms  were  glittering  with  all  the 
brightness  of  steel  or  lately-polished  brass.  Then  more  than 
750  vases,  filled  with  coined  silver,  were  borne  along  by  3000 
men.  Each  vase  contained  three  talents,  and  was  borne  by 
four  men.  There  were  some  who  bore  silver  bowls,  and  gob- 
lets, and  cups,  and  vessels  made  of  horn,  remarkable  as  well 
for  the  beauty  of  their  arrangement  as  for  their  size  and  weight 
and  the  surpassing  workmanship  of  the  raised  carving.  On  the 
third  day,  at  the  very  dawn,  the  trumpeters  began  the  march, 
.  .  .  sounding  their  war-notes  as  if  they  were  advancing  to 
battle.  A  hundred  and  twenty  fat  oxen  with  gilded  horns  and 
adorned  with  fillets  and  wreaths  of  flowers  were  led  along.  .  .  . 
Then  was  seen  the  sacred  goblet,  ten  talents  in  weight,  adorned 
with  precious  gems,  which  Paulus  had  ordered  to  be  made,  and 
also  the  goblets  of  Antigonus  and  Seleucus,  and  the  cups  made 
by  Thericles  and  other  distinguished  artists.  .  .  .  After  them 
came  the  chariot  of  Perseus,  laden  with  his  arms,  and  a  diadem 
in  addition.  .  .  .  Then  400  golden  crowns  were  carried  along, 
which  had  been  sent  by  almost  all  the  states  of  Greece  and 
Asia,  through  their  ambassadors,  as  gifts  to  Paulus,  and  an 
expression  of  their  joy  for  his  victory." 

STUDY  ON  5,  a-d. 

To  what  does  Scipio  declare  himself  superior?  Who  agree  with 
him?  Why  is  he  allowed  this  superiority?  What  assembly  has 
the  greatest  political  power  at  Rome?  Name  all  the  ways  in  which 
its  favor  is  gained.  What  change  do  you  notice  in  the  character  of 
the  Roman  people  since  the  beginning  of  the  Punic  wars  ?  What  do 
you  infer,  from  Cato's  remark,  was  the  common  reason  for  desiring 
office  ?  What  class  of  men  could  not  obtain  or  hold  office  on  account 
of  their  condition?  What  constitutional  measure  might  have  opened 
office  to  them  ?  (Compare  with  the  Athenian  democracy  under  Peri- 
cles.) 


STUDY   ON   REPUBLICAN   ROME,   PUNIC   PERIOD.        167 

What  class  of  people  are  oppressed  by  the  Romans?  What  danger 
may  threaten  Rome  in  consequence  ? 

What  effect  would  such  a  triumph  as  here  described  have  upon  the 
life  of  Rome  ?  Its  art  ?  Its  ideas  ?  Its  ambitions  ?  Its  civiliza- 
tion? 

e.  Manners,  Customs,  Life,  and  Thought  of  the  Period. 

The  soldiers  who  went  against  Antiochus  ' '  first  brought  to 
Rome  gilded  couches,  rich  tapestries,  and  .  .  .  other  works  of 
the  loom.  ...  At  entertainments  .  .  .  were  introduced  players 
on  the  harp  and  timbrel,  with  buffoons  for  the  diversion  of  the 
guests  ;  .  .  .  the  cook  .  .  .  became  highly  valuable,"  and  cook- 
ing was  regarded  as  an  art.  Poems  on  the  art  of  good  living, 
with  long  lists  of  dainties,  were  in  vogue.  "  In  Rome,"  Polybius 
tells  us,  "  nobody  gives  to  an}'  one  unless  he  must  do  so,  and  no 
one  pays  a  penny  before  it  falls  due,  even  among  near  rela- 
tives." The  descendants  of  those  who  had  once  filled  the 
highest  offices,  such  as  those  of  consul,  censor,  and  praetor,  were 
now  allowed  by  law  to  place  the  wax  images  of  these  famous 
ancestors  in  their  family  hall,  and  to  have  them  carried  in  their 
funeral  procession.  They  were  also  distinguished  from  other 
citizens  by  purple-striped  tunics  and  other  ornaments.  The 
senators  were  now  given  separate  and  superior  seats  in  the 
theatre. 

Farms  were  mostly  worked  b}r  slaves,  and  the  following  were 
some  of  the  maxims  concerning  them.  "  A  slave  must  either 
work  or  sleep."  "  So  many  slaves,  so  many  foes."  "  Let  the 
father  of  a  familv,"  counselled  Cato,  "  sell  his  old  carts,  old 
iron,  the  sick  slave,  the  old  slave,  and  all  that  he  can  sell." 
"A  good  watch-dog  must  not  be  on  too  intimate  terms  with  his 
fellow-slaves,"  said  another  Roman.  These  slaves  were  mostly 
foreigners  captured  in  war. 

It  was  during  this  period  that  the  Romans  began  to  amuse 
themselves  regularly  with  gladiatorial l  and  wild-beast  fights, 

1  The  gladiators  were  slaves,  mostly  captives  taken  in  war,  who  were 
thoroughly  trained  for  hand-to-hand  combats  of  all  sorts. 


168  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

which  the  senate  vainly  tried  to  suppress.  On  one  occasion, 
Greek  flute-players  were  introduced,  but  their  music  failed  to 
please,  whereupon  they  were  directed  to  begin  a  boxing-match, 
which  gave  most  perfect  satisfaction.  It  was  said  that  the 
audience  would  always  leave  a  play,  if  rope-dancing  or  fighting 
were  to  be  seen. 

Accounts  of  the  expenses  for  auspices,  sacrifices,  and  the 
support  of  the  national  faith  were  kept  as  exactly  as,  and  to- 
gether with,  the  accounts  for  the  cook,  nurse,  and  the  house- 
hold in  general. 

From  Goto.  —  "A  man  must  augment  his  substance,  and  he 
is  deserving  of  praise  and  full  of  a  divine  spirit  whose  account- 
books,  at  his  death,  show  that  he  has  gained  more  than  he  has 
inherited."  "  Believe  me,  those  statues  from  Syracuse  were 
brought  into  this  city  with  hostile  effect.  I  alreadv  hear  too 
many  commending  and  admiring  the  decorations  of  Athens 
and  Corinth,  and  ridiculing  the  earthen  images  of  our  Roman 
gods  that  stand  on  the  fronts  of  their  temples.  For  my  part, 
I  prefer  these  gods,  —  propitious  as  they  are." 

There  was  circulated  through  Italy  at  this  time  a  book,  ex- 
plaining the  gods  to  be  personified  powers  of  nature,  or,  in 
other  words,  to  be  merely  allegorical.  In  one  of  the  dramas  of 
Ennius  occurs  this  passage  :  — 

"  I  shall  always  say,  as  I  have  said,  that  the  gods  are  in  heaven, 
But  careless,  I  think,  of  the  actions  of  men ;  for  if  gods  were 

our  rulers, 
Then  the  good  should  have  good,  and  the  evil  have  evil ;  but 

who  ever  saw  it?" 

At  the  battle  of  Pydna,  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  occurred. 
It  was  not,  however,  regarded  as  a  bad  omen,  having  been  fore- 
told by  a  Roman  officer. 

At  a  certain  celebration  of  the  Latin  festival,  "religious 
scruples  were  felt  .  .  .  because,  on  the  offering  of  one  of  the 
victims,  the  magistrates  .  .  .  had  not  prayed  for  the  Roman 
people.  .  .  .  When  the  matter  was  brought  before  the  Senate," 


STUDY   ON   REPUBLICAN    ROME,   PUNIC   PERIOD.        169 

and  they  referred  it  to  the  .   .  .  pontiffs  ;  these  decreed  that 
the  whole  festival  must  be  repeated. 

STUDY  ON   e. 

What  proofs  can  you  give  that  Cato's  fear  of  luxury  has  good  rea- 
son ?  (See  also  a.)  What  sort  of  a  man  is  evidently  admired  among 
the  Romans  at  this  period?  What  do  they  care  for?  Proofs. 
Describe  Cato's  character.  What  relation  between  it  and  the  Prae- 
Punic  type  of  Roman  character? 

What  gives  a  man  entrance  into  the  highest  Roman  "  society  "  ? 
From  your  study  of  a  and  b,  what  kind  of  men  do  you  see  will  be 
able  to  make  this  entrance?  This  new  Roman  aristocracy,  then,  rests 
on  what  three  bases  ?  How  is  labor  regarded  at  Rome  ?  Why  ?  (See 


What  class  of  people  may  become  dangerous  to  Rome?    Why? 

What  effect  will  the  distribution  of  grain  at  Rome  have  upon  the 
market  of  the  small  farmers  of  Italy?  If  they  sell  their  lands,  what 
will  stand  in  the  way  of  their  working  in  the  large  vineyards  or  cattle- 
farms  ?  How  can  they  live  at  Rome,  even  if  entirely  ignorant  of  any 
other  occupation  than  that  of  farming  ?  What  sort  of  men  will  they 
become  at  Rome?  What  class  of  population  will  be  most  numerous 
in  the  rural  districts  ?  What  evil  will  result  from  this  state  of  affairs 
in  the  city  of  Rome  ?  What  danger  will  threaten  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts of  Italy?  How  can  you  describe  the  Roman  tastes  of  this 
period?  As  shown  in  amusements?  In  the  list  of  great  men?  What 
cause  can  be  found  in  the  previous  history  in  Rome  for  this  ? 

What  new  way  of  regarding  the  old  religious  faith  begins  now? 
What  danger  is  there  for  the  state  in  these  new  views?  What  do 
the  Romans  seem  to  regard  as  the  matter  chiefly  important  in  religion? 

Name  all  the  ways  in  which  Greece  and  the  East  are  influencing 
Rome  at  this  time.  Name  two  ways  in  which  this  influence  comes  to 
Rome. 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  tendencies  you  have  noticed  in  this  period. 
How  many  of  these  .tendencies  are  dangerous,  and  why?  Name  those 
politically  dangerous ;  socially ;  religiously. 


170  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

B.  ILL     STUDY   ON   EEPUBLICAN    KOME,   POST-PUNIC 
PEEIOD. 

Contemporary  authorities :    Julius   Csesar,   Cicero,   Sal- 
lust. 

Other  original  sources  :  Suetonius,  Plutarch. 
Chief  modern  authority :   Mommsen,  Duruy. 

1.  a.   Summary  of  More  Important  Events,  146-78  B.C. 

The  Sicilian  slaves  arm  themselves  against 
their  masters;  their  revolt  is  suppressed  by 
Roman  troops. 
Tiberius  and  Gaius  Gracchus,  tribunes  of  the  people, 
propose  (a)  that  no  citizen  shall  hold  more  than  320  acres 
of  public  land ; l  (b~)  that  all  land  in  excess  of  this  shall  be 
divided  among  the  poor  of  Italy  and  of  Rome ;  (e)  that 
Roman  citizenship  shall  be  extended  to  the  Italians ;  (cT) 
that  corn  shall  be  sold  at  a  low  price  to  all  Roman  citizens  ; 
(e)  that  the  Senate  shall  share  its  judicial  power  with  the 
rich  merchants  and  proprietors  [knights]  of  Rome ;  (/) 
that  colonies  of  the  poorer  Roman  citizens  shall  not  only 
be  planted  in  Italy,  but  also  in  the  Provinces.  Tiberius 
carries  his  measures  against  the  Senate  by  means  of  the 
Assembly  of  the  Tribes,  and  presents  himself  for  reelection 
in  spite  of  the  Roman  law;  hearing  that  violence  is  to  be 
used  against  him  on  the  election-day,  his  friends  arm 
themselves  with  staves  ;  on  that  day  a  rumor  runs  through 
the  Senate  that  Tiberius  aims  at  kingly  power ;  arming 
themselves  with  bludgeons,  and  clubs,  and  the  legs  of  the 
benches,  the  senators  enter  the  Forum,  and  disperse  the 
adherents  of  Gracchus,  who  is  this  day  killed. 

Gaius  Gracchus  earnestly  carries  on  the  work  of  his 
brother ;  the  Senate  decree  him  a  public  enemy,  and  arm 
1  Land  gained  and  divided  by  the  state  among  its  citizens. 


REPUBLICAN    HOME,    POST-PUNIC    PERIOD.  171 

themselves  against  him.  His  followers  fight  in  his  defence 
but  are  defeated,  and  Gaius  slain.  Thus  end  the  "  Dissen- 
sions of  the  Gracchi." 

South  Gaul  {Provence)  becomes  a  Roman  province ;  a 
road  is  built  from  the  Rhone  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  strong 
colonies  founded  (Aix). 

The  heirs  to  the  throne  of  Numidia  quarrel, 
and  appeal  to  Rome  to  decide  between  them. 
The  senators,  bribed  by  Jugurtha,  one  of  these 
claimants,  declare  unjustly  in  his  favor.  Nevertheless, 
he  flagrantly  disobeys  the  positive  commands  of  the  Senate, 
and  massacres  so  many  Italians  within  his  dominion,  that 
the  Senate  is  forced  to  declare  against  him.  They  send 
an  army  into  Africa  under  the  command,  first  of  Metellus, 
then  of  Marius,  who  is  assisted  by  Sulla.  By  these  gene- 
rals Jugurtha  is  conquered  and  brought  captive  to  Rome, 
and  Numidia  rendered  practically  subject. 

Various  Teutonic  tribes  threaten  both  Hither  and  Farther 
Gaul,  and  Marius,  elected  consul1  in  spite  of  the  law  for  five 
successive  years,  at  length  repulses  them  in  two  famous 
battles,  in  one  of  which  Sulla  also  is  prominent.  A  second 
armed  revolt  of  Sicilian  slaves  is  repressed  by  the  Roman 
armies  with  some  difficulty. 

Drusus,  tribune  of  the  people,  again  brings 
forward  the  Gracchan  proposals  as  to  the  division 
of  lands  and  the  enfranchisement  of  Italians ;  he 
is  assassinated,  and  a  law  passed  that  all  who  favor  the 
Italian  claims  are  guilty  of  high  treason  to  Rome.  The 
u  Social  War "  breaks  out,  —  a  war  of  the  Italian  allies 
(Socii)  against  Rome  in  order  to  gain  the  rights  of  Roman 
citizens ;  both  Sulla  and  Marius  are  prominent  and  suc- 


1  It  is  important  to  remember  that,  in  order  to  be  a  Roman  general,  one 
must  be  elected  either  consul  or  dictator. 


172  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

cessful  in  this  war,  which,  nevertheless,  results  in  giving 
the  Roman  franchise  to  the  whole  peninsula. 

Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  aided  by  discon- 
tented states  and  cities  in  Asia  and  Greece, 
makes  war  on  Rome,  who  makes  Sulla  her  com- 
mander-in-chief ;  thereupon  the  followers  of  Marius  arm 
themselves,  and  drive  the  supporters  of  Sulhi  from  the 
Forum.  They  next  vote  that  Marius  shall  be  general  for 
the  East.  Sulla  now  leads  his  own  troops  to  Rome,  and 
defeats  the  soldiers  of  Marius ;  the  latter  flees  to  Africa, 
while  Sulla  leaves  for  Asia. 

Marius  returns,  lays  siege  to  Rome,  and  takes  it;  his 
soldiers  slay  his  enemies  and  plunder  the  city ;  Marius, 
without  regular  election,  assumes  the  powers  of  a  consul, 
but  soon  dies.  His  successor  stands  illegally  as  consul  for 
three  successive  years,  without  being  regularly  elected. 
Both  Marius  and  his  followers  support  the  measures  of  the 
Gracchi. 

Sulla,  victorious  over  Mithridates,  dictates  terms  of 
peace,  and  returns  to  Italy  83  B.C.  He  there  reconquers 
the  Marian  party,  enters  Rome  with  his  troops,  and  has 
more  than  4000  of  his  enemies  put  to  death  by  his  sole 
order.  At  his  own  suggestion,  he  is  made  dictator  for  so 
long  time  as  he  shall  think  fit ;  he  gives  thousands  of  his 
soldiers  grants  of  land  in  Italy.  After  two  years,  in  which 
he  seeks  to  strengthen  the  power  of  the  Senate,  he  resigns 
the  Dictatorship,  and  soon  after  dies  (78  B.C.). 

STUDY  ON  I  «. 

Look  over  the  wars  and  disturbances  of  the  period,  and  tell  how 
many  and  of  what  kinds  they  were.  Judging  from  these  wars  and 
disturbances,  what  classes  of  people  find  themselves  injured  or 
oppressed  by  Roman  rule?  What  causes  for  these  disturbances  are 
to  be  found  in  the  Punic  period  ?  What  class  or  classes  of  people  are 


REPUBLICAN    ROME,    POST-PUNIC    PERIOD.  178 

to  be  benefited  by  each  measure  of  the  Gracchi?  What  class  or 
classes  would  oppose  each,  and  why  ?  Which  measure  seems  to  you 
bad,  and  why?  Into  what  parties  are  the  people  divided  by  the  "  Dis- 
sensions of  the  Gracchi "  ?  What  constitutional  organization  repre- 
sents each?  Which  is  the  radical  party?  Which  the  conservative? 
In  this  case,  which  was  the  party  of  reform?  Why  should  the 
Romans  so  violently  oppose  the  Italian  enfranchisement?  What 
would  the  Italians  gain  by  it  ?  What  faults  of  moral  character  dis- 
played by  the  Romans  in  this  period?  What  great  differences  do  you 
see  between  the  political  life  of  Rome  in  the  time  of  the  Gracchi  and 
that  life  before  and  during  the  Punic  period  ? 

How  do  the  followers  of  Marius  and  Sulla  break  the  laws  of  Rome  ? 
In  whose  hands  is  the  actual  power  during  the  civil  wars  of  these  two 
generals  ?  What  necessities  of  Rome  force  power  into  their  hands  ? 

1.  b.  Summary  of  Leading  Events,  78-27  B.C. 

Marian  revolts  against  the  government  of  Sulla 


in  Italy  and  Spain  are  put  down  by  Porapey.  A  TO 
revolt  of  the  gladiator-slaves  of  Italy  is  suppressed  I — — — '. 
by  Crassus  and  Pompey.  Pompey  and  Crassus  both  de- 
sire to  stand  for  the  consulship ;  the  Senate  cannot  legally 
grant  this;  but  both  are  at  the  gates  of  Rome  with  their 
armies,  and  both  are  chosen  to  the  desired  office,  each 
keeping  an  army  near  at  hand. 

Cilician  pirates  render  the  Mediterranean  and  its  coasts 
very  dangerous  for  commerce  and  travel ;  Pompey  is 
chosen  to  subdue  them,  and  given  for  the  purpose  abso- 
lute dictatorial  power.  In  three  months  he  renders  the 
sea  perfectly  safe. 

A  second  war  with  Mithridates  breaks  out,  and  Pompey, 
chosen  to  end  it,  is  appointed  dictator  for  the  East;  vic- 
torious, he  turns  Pontus,  Syria,  and  Cilicia  into  Roman 
provinces  (66-61). 

A  conspiracy  to  burn  and  plunder  Rome,  headed  by 
Catiline,  is  discovered  and  defeated  by  the  eloquence 
and  detective  skill  of  Cicero. 


174  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Julius  Caesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus  agree  to 
help  each  other  to  gain  the  office  which  each 
wishes  from  Rome  {First  Triumvirate*).  Caesar 
is  made  consul,  and  introduces  new  laws  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  land  among  the  poor,  especially  among 
the  families  of  soldiers  (60-59  B.C.).  He  conquers 
Gaul  and  makes  of  it  a  Roman  province.  Caesar  and 
Pompey,  supported  by  their  respective  armies,  contend 
for  the  chief  power  at  Rome;  the  contest  Qiids  by  the 
victory  of  Caesar  at  Pharsalus  (48).  {Wars  of  the  First 
Triumvirate.') 

After  conquering  the  Pompeians  in  the  provinces,  Caesar 
returns  to  Rome,  is  appointed  dictator  for  ten  years,  and 
soon  after,  for  life.  In  this  office  he  accomplishes,  or 
urges  on,  the  following  measures:  (a)  the  giving  of 
Roman  citizenship  to  Hither  Gaul,  and  to  some  of  the 
communities  of  Farther  Gaul  and  Spain ;  (6)  the  intro- 
duction of  provincials  (Gauls)  into  the  Senate;  (c«)  a 
reform  of  the  calendar,  which  has  sufficed  ever  since ;  (cC) 
the  survey  of  the  whole  empire ;  (e)  the  planting  of 
Roman  colonies  in  the  provinces;  (/)  various  public 
works  for  the  improvement  of  Rome  and  Italy. 

Caesar  is  accused  of  aiming  at  kingly  power,  and  a  con- 
spiracy is  formed  against  him.  He  is  slain  by  its  leaders, 
Brutus  and  Cassius.  His  friend,  Mark  Antony,  and  his 
adopted  heir  and  nephew,  Octavian  Caesar,  together  with 
a  certain  Lepidus,  agree  to  divide  his  power  among  them. 
Both  parties  gather  troops;  but  those  of  Brutus  and 
Cassius  are  utterly  defeated  at  Philippi  (42).  Civil 
war  between  the  Triumvirs  themselves  ensues,  but 
is  ended  by  the  victory  of  Octavian  Caesar  at  Actium 
(31  B.C.). 

Octavian  becomes  Augustus  Caesar,  the  first  Emperor  of 
Rome  (27  B.C.). 


REPUBLICAN    HOME,    POST-PUNIC    PERIOD. 


175 


STUDY  ON   I,  a  AND  6. 

What  wrongs  and  weaknesses  of  Roman  rule  are  indicated  by  b  1 
Name  in  order  the  successive  leaders  oi  the  party  of  the  Gracchi  up 
to  27  B.C.  By  what  means  do  these  men  and  their  opponents  gain 
their  power  in  the  state?  What  necessity  forces  the  state  to  allow 
them  this  power ;  illustrate  from  Marius,  Sulla,  Pompey.  What  other 
means  are  employed  to  gain  power  during  the  whole  period  146-27  ? 
[Gracchi  and  Cicero.]  What  sort  of  force  does  the  emperor  repre- 
sent? On  what  class  of  people  is  he  dependent  for  his  power? 
Which  of  the  two  pai'ties  of  the  period  does  he  represent?  Name  in  order 
the  men  who  hold  imperial  power  from  146-27.  Name  in  order  the 
affairs  which  show  the  weakness  of  the  Roman  government.  [Note 
the  length  of  time  of  the  disturbances  at  home  compared  with  the 
foreign  wars  under  Marius,  Sulla,  Pompey.]  In  what  direction  is  it 
strongest? 

2.  List  of  Noteworthy   Men  and    Works  of  Post-Punic 
Period. 

Contemporaries  of  Cicero  (106-43  B.C.)  marked  *. 


Name. 

Birth,  Circumstance. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

*Antony,  Mark, 

Roman  of  consu- 

See 1.  6. 

lar  rank,  but 

poor. 

*Brutus  and 

Roman 

See  1.  b. 

patrician. 

jf 

*Cassius, 

Roman  plebeian. 

See  1.  b. 

*Caesar,  Julius, 

Roman 

Author  of  military  and  historical  com- 

patrician. 

mentaries  on  the  Gallic  wars  ;  see  1  b. 

*Catullus, 

Verona;  of  a 

Lyric  poet,  at  first  following  Greek 

wealthy  and 

models. 

notable  family. 

*Cicero, 

Latium  ;   knight. 

Senatorial  orator  ;  forensic  pleader  ; 

author  of  essays  on  friendship,  old 

age,  the  gods,  and  other  abstract  sub- 

jects ;  his  written  orations  are  mas- 

terpieces of  elegant  and  effective 

eloquence. 

176 


STUDIES  IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 


Name. 

Birth,  Circumstance. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Gracchus,  Gaius, 

Roman 

See  1.  a. 

patrician. 

Gracchus, 

Roman 

See  1.  a. 

Tiberius, 

patrician. 

Lucretius, 

Rome  ;  of   an- 
cient family  ; 
knight(?). 

Philosophical  poet  ;   his  philosophy 
founded  on  the  atheistic  teaching  of 
Epicurus. 

Marius, 

Latium  ; 
plebeian. 

See  1.  a. 

*Nepos, 
Cornelius, 

Cisalpine  Gaul.  .  . 

Historian  and  biographer. 

*Pompey, 

Patrician. 

See  1.  b. 

*Sallust, 

Land  of  the 
Sabines  ; 
plebeian. 

Historian  of  Catiline's  conspiracy 
and  the  Jugurthine  wars  ;  imitated 
Greek  models. 

Sulla, 

Roman  patrician. 

See  I.  a. 

*Varro, 

Land  of  the  Sa- 
bines ;    plebe- 
ian ;  family  of 
senatorial 

Author  of  works  on  agriculture  and 
history  ;   the  "  most  learned  of  the 
Romans." 

rank. 

During  this  time  new  and  important  roads  were  built 
in  Italy  itself,  and  extended  to  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Mace- 
donia ;  the  draining  of  the  great  Italian  marshes  was 
undertaken;  the  old  aqueducts  were  repaired,  and  new 
ones  built;  new  bridges  were  constructed;  a  new  fish- 
market  and  forum  were  made  at  Rome ;  and  the  Great 
Circus  was  enlarged.  All  these  works  were  inaugurated 
and  executed  by  the  Roman  magistrates. 

STUDY  ON   2. 

Of  the  works  of  this  period,  which  do  you  consider  as  peculiarly 
Roman?  (Compare  with  the  lists  on  pp.  96,  162.)  What  element 


REPUBLICAN   ROME,    POST-PUNIC   PERIOD.  177 

of  character  causes  the  Romans  to  produce  and  care  for  such  works? 
In  what  sorts  of  activity  do  the  greatest  Romans  earn  their  fame  ? 
What  class  produces,  on  the  whole,  the  greatest  men  of  this  period  ? 
Whence  comes  the  literary  greatness  of  Rome,  and  how  is  it  in- 
fluenced ?  What  literary  works  are  original  to  Rome? 

3.   Illustrative  Extracts  from  Contemporary  and  Origi- 
nal Sources. 

a.    The  Jugurthine  War.  (Abridged  from  Sallust.) 

Now  Jugurtha  "  despatched  ambassadors  to  Rome,  with  a 
profusion  of  gold  and  silver.  .  .  .  When  these  deputies  had 
arrived  at  Rome,  and  had  sent  large  presents,  according  to  the 
prince's  direction,  ...  so  remarkable  a  change  ensued,  that 
Jugurtha,  from  being  an  object  of  the  greatest  odium,  grew 
into  great  regard  and  favor  with  the  nobility.  .  .  .  When  the 
ambassadors,  accordingly,  felt  sure  of  success,  the  senate,  on 
a  fixed  day,  gave  audience  to  both  parties.  On  that  occasion, 
Adherbal  .  .  .  spoke  to  the  following  effect :  — 

"  '  My  father,  Micipsa,  Conscript  Fathers,  enjoined  me  ...  to 
consider  the  right  and  authorit}'  as  belonging  to  you  ;  .  .  .  and 
to  regard  you  as  my  kindred  and  relatives,  saying,  that  ...  I 
should  find,  in  your  friendship,  armies,  riches,  and  all  necessary 
defenses  of  my  realm.  By  these  precepts  I  was  proceeding  to 
regulate  1113-  conduct,  when  Jugurtha  .  .  .  expelled  me,  .  .  .  the 
hereditary  friend  and  ally  of  the  Roman  people,  from  my  king- 
dom and  all  my  possessions.  ...  It  is  what  you  bestowed  that 
has  been  wrested  from  me  ;  in  my  wrongs  you  are  insulted.  .  .  . 
I  implore  you,  therefore,  Conscript  Fathers  ...  by  the  majesty 
of  the  Roman  people,  ...  to  arrest  the  progress  of  injustice, 
and  not  to  suffer  the  kingdom  of  Numidia  ...  to  sink  into 
ruin  .  .  .'  "  The  ambassadors  of  Jugurtha  were  then  heard, 
and  the  senate  proceeded  to  deliberate.  "  Yet  that  party  gained 
the  superiority  .  .  .  which  preferred  money  and  interest  to  jus- 
tice," and  the  kingdom  was  divided  in  the  interests  of  Jugurtha. 
When,  at  last,  the  outrages  of  Jugurtha  in  Africa  were 
reported  at  Rome,  ..."  the  senate  .  .  .  from  consciousness  of 


178  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL    HISTOKY. 

misconduct,  became  afraid  of  the  people  .  .  .  An  army  was 
then  raised  to  be  sent  into  Africa."  On  its  arrival,  both  its 
commanders  were  tempted  by  Jugurtha  with  bribes,  and  were 
"  seduced,  by  a  vast  sum  of  money,  from  integrity  and  honor 
to  injustice  and  perfidy,  .  .  .  and  the  next  dav  Jugurtha  was 
formalh'  allowed  to  surrender  [on  terms  very  favorable  to  him- 
self] ....  When  rumor  had  made  known  the  affairs  transacted 
in  Africa,  and  the  mode  in  which  they  had  been  brought  to  pass, 
.  .  .  among  the  people,  there  was  A'iolent  indignation  ;  as  to  the 
senators,  whether  they  would  ratify  so  flagitious  a  proceeding, 
or  annul  the  act  of  the  consul,  was  a  matter  of  doubt.  At 
this  juncture  a  tribune  of  the  people  entreated  them  to  bring 
the  senators  to  judgment  and  to  fetch  Jugurtha  to  Rome  as  a 
witness."  Jugurtha  was  accordingly  brought,  but  "  purchased, 
by  a  vast  bribe,  the  aid  of  ...  a  tribune  of  the  people,  by  whose 
audacity  he  hoped  to  be  protected  against  the  law."  When 
Jugurtha  was  called  upon  to  give  his  testimony,  this  tribune 
"  enjoined  the  prince  to  hold  his  peace  ;  and  though  the  multi- 
tude .  .  .  were  desperately  enraged,  .  .  .  his  audacity  was  at 
last  triumphant.  The  people,  mocked  and  set  at  naught,  with- 
drew from  the  place  of  assembly ;  and  the  confidence  of 
Jugurtha  .  .  .  was  greatly  augmented."  Soon  after,  Jugurtha 
was  ordered  by  the  senate  to  quit  Italy,  and  the  war  was  con- 
tinued under  new  commanders,  of  whom  the  best  was  Metellus. 
"When  he  arrived  in  Africa,  the  command  of  the  army  was 
resigned  to  him.  .  .  .  But  neither  had  the  camp  been  fortified, 
nor  the  watches  kept ;  .  .  .  every  one  had  been  allowed  to  leave 
his  post  when  he  pleased.  The  camp-followers,  mingled  with 
the  soldiers,  wandered  about  day  and  night,  ravaging  the 
country,  robbing  the  houses,  .  .  .  carrying  off  cattle  and  slaves, 
which  they  exchanged  with  traders  for  foreign  wine  and  other 
luxuries."  Metellus  at  once  gave  "  a  general  order  that  no  one 
should  sell  bread,  or  any  other  dressed  provisions,  in  the  camp ; 
.  .  .  and  that  no  common  soldier  should  have  a  servant,  or 
beast  of  burden.  ...  He  moved  his  camp  daily,  exercising  the 
soldiers  by  marches  across  the  country ;  he  fortified  it  with  a 


REPUBLICAN   ROME,    POST-PUNIC    PERIOD.  179 

rampart  and  a  trench,  exactly  as  if  the  enemy  had  been  at 
hand.  .  .  .  Thus,  by  preventing  rather  than  punishing  irregu- 
larities, he  in  a  short  time  rendered  his  army  effective,"  and 
prosecuted  the  war  with  vigor. 

But  now  as  his  lieutenant  Caius  Marius  was  one  dav  "sacri- 
ficing to  the  gods,  an  augur  told  him  that  great  and  wonderful 
things  were  presaged  to  him,"  and  having  ardently  desired  the 
consulship,  he  asked  for  leave  of  absence  to  offer  himself  a 
candidate  at  Rome.  This  Metellus  refused  to  give.  From 
that  time  Marius  "allowed  the  soldiers  .  .  .  more  relaxation 
of  discipline  than  he  had  ever  granted  them  before.  He  talked 
of  the  war  among  merchants  ;  .  .  .  saying  '  that  if  but  half  of 
the  army  were  granted  him,  he  would,  in  a  few  days,  have 
Jugurtha  in  chains  ;  but  that  the  war  was  purposely  protracted 
by  the  consul.' "  He  then  induced  "both  soldiers  and  merchants 
to  write  to  their  friends  at  Rome,  ...  to  intimate  that  Marius 
should  be  appointed  general.  The  common  people  at  Rome, 
having  learned  the  contents  of  these  letters,"  voted  that  Marius 
should  be  general  in  the  African  War,  and  thus  rendered  use- 
less the  previous  decree  of  the  senate,  which  had  given  it  to 
Metellus.  "Nor  did  the  senate  .  .  .  dare  to  refuse  him  any 
thing,"  while  the  people  themselves  felt  an  ardent  desire  to 
serve  under  Marius.  "Every  one  cherished  the  fancy  that  he 
should  return  home  laden  with  spoil  ...  or  attended  with  some 
similar  good  fortune.  Marius  himself,  too,  had  excited  them 
in  no  small  degree  "  by  speaking  as  follows:  "  They  reproach 
me  as  being  mean,  and  of  unpolished  manners,  because,  for- 
sooth, I  have  but  little  skill  in  arranging  an  entertainment,  and 
keep  no  actor,  nor  give  my  cook  higher  wages  than  my  steward  ; 
all  which  charges  I  must,  indeed,  acknowledge  to  be  just.  .  .  . 
But  let  the  nobility,  if  the}'  please,  pursue  what  is  delightful 
and  dear  to  them ;  let  them  devote  themselves  to  ...  revelry 
and  feasting,  the  slaves  of  gluttony  and  debauchery  ;  but  let 
them  leave  the  toil  and  dust  of  the  field  ...  to  us,  to  whom 
they  are  more  grateful  than  banquets."  Setting  out  for  Africa, 
he  continued  the  war  with  success;  "his  soldiers,  kept  under 


180  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTOiiY. 

mild  discipline  and  enriched  with  spoil,  extolled  him  to  the 
skies."  Among  his  officers,  the  most  famous  was  Sulla,  who 
became,  in  a  short  time,  "  the  most  expert  of  the  whole  army. 
He  was,  besides,  affable  to  the  soldiers,  and  .  .  .  conversed 
jocosely  as  well  as  seriously  with  the  humblest ;  ...  he  was 
their  frequent  companion  at  their  works,  on  the  inarch  and  on 
guard."  By  the  aid  of  Sulla,  Jugurtha  was  captured,  and 
Marius  returned  to  Rome,  having  ended  the  war. 

STUDY   ON    3,  a. 

What  was  the  real  relation  of  Numidia  to  Rome?  Why  was  not 
Rome  able  to  defend  Adherbal  ?  What  other  source  of  Roman  weak- 
ness appeared  on  the  arrival  of  Metellus  in  Africa  ?  What  did  the 
Romans  seem  to  be  caring  for  at  this  time  ?  What  proofs  that  this 
was  general  in  all  classes  ?  Compare  this  with  the  state  of  affairs  in 
the  Punic  period.  What  two  parties  were  there  now  in  Rome?  What 
seemed  to  distinguish  each  according  to  Marius?  What  assembly 
represented  each?  Which  was  the  stronger,  and  why?  What  proof 
have  we  of  its  superior  strength  ?  In  what  did  the  strength  of  the 
other  consist  ?  What  feeling  seemed  to  be  the  cause  of  the  displace- 
ment of  Metellus  by  Marius?  By  what  means  did  Marius  gain  power 
and  influence?  By  what,  Sulla?  Name  all  the  ways  in  which  the 
Roman  power  is  seen  to  be  weakened  and  endangered  in  the  events 
of  the  Jugurthine  War.  By  whom  was  she  thus  weakened  and 
endangered  ? 

b.    Extracts  from  Cicero's  Orations  in  Behalf  of  the  Sicilians 
against  Verres,  who  had  been  sent  to  /Sicily  as  Prcetor. 

"  While  this  man  was  praetor  ...  no  legal  decision  for  three 
years  was  given  on  any  other  ground  but  his  will ;  no  property 
was  so  secure  to  any  man,  even  if  it  had  descended  to  him 
from  his  father  and  grandfather,  but  he  was  deprived  of  it  at 
his  command.  .  .  .  Roman  citizens  were  tortured  and  put  to 
death  like  slaves ;  the  greatest  criminals  were  acquitted  in  the 
courts  of  justice  through  bribery  ;  .  .  .  the  most  fortified  har- 
bors, the  greatest  and  strongest  cities,  were  laid  open  to  pirates 
and  robbers ;  the  sailors  and  soldiers  of  the  Sicilians,  our  own 


EEPUBLICAN   ROME,   POST-PUNIC    PERIOD.  181 

allies  and  friends,  died  of  hunger ;  the  best  built  fleets  on  the 
most  important  stations  were  lost  and  destroyed,  to  the  great 
disgrace  of  the  Roman  people.  This  same  man,  ...  in  Achaea 
demanded  money  from  a  Sicyonian  magistrate.  Do  not  let  this 
be  considered  a  crime  in  Verres ;  others  have  done  the  same. 
When  he  could  not  give  it,  he  punished  him  ;  a  scandalous,  but 
not  an  unheard  of  act.  Listen  to  the  sort  of  punishment.  .  .  . 
He  ordered  a  fire  to  be  made  of  green  and  damp  wood  in  a  nar- 
row place.  There  he  left  a  free  man,  a  noble  in  his  own  coun- 
try, an  ally  and  friend  of  the  Roman  people,  tortured  with 
smoke,  half  dead.  .  .  .  But  the  storming  of  that  most  ancient 
and  most  noble  temple  of  the  Samian  Juno,  how  grievous  was 
it  to  the  Samians  !  how  bitter  to  all  Asia  !  .  .  .  And  when  am- 
bassadors had  come  from  Samos  into  Asia  ...  to  complain  of 
this  attack  on  that  temple,  they  received  for  answer,  that  com- 
plaints of  that  sort  .  .  .  must  be  carried  to  Rome.  .  .  ." 

******* 
' '  Heraclius  is  ...  a  Syracusan ;  a  man  among  the  very  first 
for  nobility  of  family,  and,  before  Verres  came,  .  .  .  one  of  the 
most  wealthy  of  the  Syracusans.  .  .  .  An  inheritance  of  at 
least  three  millions  of  sesterces  came  to  him,  .  .  .  the  house 
was  full  of  silver  plate  exquisitely  carved,  of  abundance  of 
embroidered  robes,  and  of  most  valuable  slaves.  .  .  .  An  action 
is  brought  in  due  form  against  Heraclius.  .  .  .  Judges  are  ap- 
pointed, whomsoever  Verres  chooses.  .  .  .  He  commands  them 
to  condemn  Heraclius.  ...  So  they  condemn  him.  What  is 
the  meaning  of  this  madness?  .  .  .  The  first  measures  which 
are  taken  are  to  carry  whatever  chased  plate  there  was  among 
that  property  to  Verres :  as  for  all  Corinthian  vessels,  all 
embroidered  robes,  no  one  doubted  that  they  would  be  taken 
and  seized,  and  carried  inevitably  to  his  house.  The  land 
of  the  province  of  Sicily  liable  to  the  payment  of  taxes  is 
deserted  through  the  avarice  of  that  man.  .  .  .  Wherefore  .  .  . 
O  judges,  you  can  easily  see  that  Sicily,  that  most  productive 
and  most  desirable  province,  has  been  lost  to  the  Roman  people, 
unless  you  recover  it  bv  vour  condemnation  of  that  man. 


J.82  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

For  what  is  Sicily  if  you  take  awa}-  the  cultivation  of  its  land, 
and  if  you  extinguish  the  multitude  and  the  very  name  of  the 
cultivators  of  the  soil  ?  .  .  .  All  the  provinces  are  mourning  ;  all 
the  nations  that  are  free  are  complaining  ;  every  kingdom  is 
expostulating  with  us  about  our  covetousness  and  our  injustice ; 
.  .  .  the  Roman  people  is  now  no  longer  able  to  bear  .  .  .  the 
mourning,  the  tears,  and  the  complaints  of  all  foreign  nations." 

STUDY  ON  3,  b. 

What  injury  did  Verres  inflict  upon  the  treasury  of  Rome  ?  Upon 
her  power  ?  Upon  her  reputation  ?  Upon  her  territory  ?  Upon 
religious  faith  of  men?  How  did  he  inflict  each  of  these  injuries? 
What  proof  from  Cicero's  speech  that  Verres  was  not  the  only  case 
of  such  a  provincial  governor?  What  reason  do  we  find  in  Verres' 
conduct  for  the  eagerness  for  foreign  office  among  the  Romans? 
What  do  these  extracts  show  to  have  been  a  ruling  passion  with  many 
Romans?  In  what  other  case  have  you  seen  the  same  thing? 

What  do  the  cases  of  the  Jugurthine  War  and  the  management  of 
Sicily  indicate  as  to  the  rule  of  Rome  in  her  provinces  ?  What  faults 
had  it? 

c.    The  Rise  of  Julius  Caesar.  (Abridged  from  Suetonius.) 

"Julius  Caesar,  the  Divine,  .  .  .  lost  his  father  when  he  was 
but  sixteen ;  shortly  after,  he  married  Cornelia,  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  famous  Marian  leader ;  Sulla,  being  then  dictator, 
desired  him  to  divorce  her ;  but  Caesar,  resolutely  resisting,  lost 
his  office,  his  estates,  his  wife's  dowry,  and  was  forced  to  with- 
draw from  Rome."  After  changing  his  place  of  concealment 
nearly  every  night,  although  he  was  suffering  from  ague,  and 
having  effected  his  release  by  bribing  the  officers  who  had 
tracked  his  footsteps,  he  at  length  obtained  a  pardon  through 
the  intercession  of  the  vestal  virgins,  and  of  ...  his  near  rela- 
tives. After  Sulla's  death  he  returned  to  Rome,  where  he 
obtained  several  successive  minor  offices  from  the  people.  Dur- 
ing this  time  "he  not  only  embellished  the  Forum,  with  the 
adjoining  halls,  but  adorned  the  Capitol  also,  with  temporary 
piazzas,  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  displaying  some  part  of 


REPUBLICAN   ROME,    POST-PUNIC   PERIOD.  183 

the  superabundant  collections  he  had  made  for  the  amusement 
of  the  people.  He  entertained  them  [also]  with  the  hunting  of 
wild  beasts,  and  with  games.  .  .  .  Having  thus  conciliated 
popular  favor,  he  endeavored  ...  to  get  Egypt  assigned  to  him 
as  a  province,  by  an  act  of  the  people.  .  .  .  But  .  .  .  there 
was  so  much  opposition  from  the  faction  of  the  nobles,  that  he 
could  not  carry  his  point.  In  order,  therefore,  to  diminish 
their  influence  ...  he  restored  the  trophies  erected  in  honour  of 
Cains  Marius,  which  had  been  demolished  by  Sulla.  .  .  .  Hav- 
ing renounced  all  hope  of  obtaining  Egypt  for  his  province,  he 
stood  candidate  for  the  office  of  chief  pontiff,  to  secure  which 
he  had  recourse  to  the  most  profuse  bribery.  .  .  .  After  he 
was  chosen  praetor,  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  was  discovered ; 
and  while  every  other  member  of  the  Senate  voted  for  inflicting 
capital  punishment  on  the  accomplices  in  that  crime  he  alone 
proposed  that  the  delinquents  should  be  distributed  for  safe 
custody  among  the  towns  of  Italy,  their  pi'opert}'  being  confis- 
cated. He  stood  for  this,  until  some  knights  standing  near 
threatened  him  with  instant  death  and  even  thrust  at  him  with 
swords  ;  whereupon  he  withdrew,  and  absented  himself  from 
the  Senate  "during  the  remainder  of  that  year."  Afterward, 
finding  that  "  preparations  were  made  to  obstruct  him  by  force 
of  arms"  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  "he  betook  himself 
privately  to  his  own  house,  with  the  resolution  of  being  quiet 
in  a  time  so  unfavorable.  ...  He  likewise  pacified  the  mob, 
which  ...  in  a  riotous  manner  made  a  voluntary  tender  of 
their  assistance.  .  .  .  This  happening  contrary  to  expectation, 
the  Senate  .  .  .  gave  him  their  thanks." 

On  becoming  consul  ' '  he  introduced  a  new  regulation  :  that 
the  daily  acts  both  of  the  Senate  and  people  should  be  com- 
mitted to  writing  and  published."  He  also  divided  certain 
Campanian  land  "  among  upwards  of  20,000  freemen,  who  had 
each  of  them  three  or  more  children."  During  the  nine  years 
in  which  he  held  the  government  of  Gaul,  he  reduced  it  all  to 
the  form  of  a  province.  "  He  was  the  first  of  the  Romans  who, 
crossing  the  Rhine  by  a  bridge,  attacked  the  Germanic  tribes. 


184  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

...  He  also  invaded  the  Britons,  a  people  formerly  unknown. 
.  .  .  With  money  raised  from  the  spoils  of  the  war,  he  began 
to  construct  a  new  forum  .  .  .  and  promised  the  people  a  public 
entertainment  of  gladiators  and  a  feast  .  .  .  such  as  no  one 
before  him  had  ever  given.  The  more  to  raise  their  expecta- 
tions on  this  occasion,  although  he  had  agreed  with  victuallers 
of  all  denominations  for  his  feast,  he  made  yet  farther  prepara- 
tions in  private  houses.  .  .  .  Young  gladiators  he  trained  up, 
not  in  the  school  and  by  the  masters  of  defense,  but  in  the 
houses  of  Roman  knights,  and  even  senators,  skilled  in  the  use 
of  arms,  ...  He  doubled  the  pay  of  the  legions  in  perpetuity, 
allowing  them,  likewise,  grain,  when  it  was  in  plenty,  without 
any  restriction,  and  sometimes  distributing  to  every  soldier  in 
his  arm}'  a  slave  and  a  portion  of  land.  .  .  .  Every  person 
about  him,  and  a  great  portion,  likewise,  of  the  Senate,  he 
secured  by  loans  of  money  at  low  interest  or  none  at  all ;  and 
to  all  others  who  came  to  wait  upon  him,  either  by  invitation  or 
of  their  own  accord,  he  made  liberal  presents,  not  neglecting 
even  the  freedmen  and  slaves.  ...  He  endeavored  with  equal 
assiduity  to  engage  in  his  interest  princes  and  provinces  in 
every  part  of  the  world,  presenting  some  with  thousands  of 
captives,  and  sending  to  others  the  assistance  of  troops  .  .  . 
without  any  authority  from  either  the  Senate  or  people  of  Rome. 
He  ...  embellished  with  magnificent  public  buildings  the  most 
powerful  cities,  not  only  of  Italy,  Gaul,  and  Spain,  but  of 
Greece  and  Asia ;  until,  all  people  being  now  astonished,  and 
speculating  on  the  obvious  tendency  of  these  proceedings,  .  .  . 
the  consul  .  .  .  made  a  motion  in  the  Senate  that  some  person 
should  be  appointed  to  succeed  Caesar  in  his  province,  before 
the  term  of  his  command  was  expired."  Caesar,  understanding 
that  this  measure  proceeded  from  Pompey,  "  wrote  a  letter  to 
the  Senate,  requesting  that  they  would  not  deprive  him  of  the 
privilege  kindly  granted  him  by  the  people,"  or  else  that  Pom- 
pey should  resign  the  command  of  his  army,  as  well  as  himself. 
But  the  Senate  declined  to  interpose,  and  his  enemies  consented 
to  no  compromise.  Caesar  advanced  into  Hither  Gaul  with  his 


REPUBLICAN    ROME,    POST-PUNIC   PERIOD.  185 

troops,  and,  after  once  more  failing  to  arrange  matters  at  Rome, 
crossed  the  Rubicon,  —  the  southern  boundary  of  his  own  prov- 
ince, —  and  "  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  and  his  garment  rent  from 
his  bosom,  called  upon  the  troops  to  pledge  him  their  fidelity." 

After  becoming  perpetual  dictator,  he  gave  money  and  land 
to  all  the  veterans  of  his  infantry  ;  and  to  the  Roman  populace, 
wheat  and  oil  and  money.  To  all  this  he  added  a  public  enter- 
tainment and  a  distribution  of  meat,  and,  after  his  Spanish 
victory,  two  public  dinners. 

"...  His  thoughts  were  now  fully  employed  from  day  to  day 
on  a  variety  of  great  projects  for  the  embellishment  and  im- 
provement of  the  city,  as  well  as  for  guarding  and  extending 
the  bounds  of  the  empire.  In  the  first  place,  he  meditated  the 
construction  of  a  temple  to  Mars,  which  should  exceed  iu 
grandeur  everything  of  that  kind  in  the  world.  ...  He  also 
projected  a  most  spacious  theatre  .  .  .  ;  and  also  proposed  to 
reduce  the  civil  law  to  a  reasonable  compass,  and  out  of  that 
immense  and  undigested  mass  of  statutes  to  extract  the  best 
and  most  necessary  parts  into  a  few  books,  to  make  as  large  a 
collection  as  possible  of  works  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  lan- 
guages, for  the  public  use.  ...  He  intended,  likewise,  to 
drain  the  Pontine  marshes,  to  cut  a  channel  for  the  discharge 
of  the  waters  of  the  Lake  Fucinus,  to  form  a  road  from  the 
upper  sea  through  the  ridge  of  the  Apennine  to  the  Tiber,  and 
to  make  a  cut  through  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  .  .  .  But  in  the 
midst  of  all  his  undertakings  and  projects,  he  was  carried  off  by 
death." 

******* 

"  He  was  so  nice  in  the  care  of  his  person,  that  he  ...  kept 
the  hair  of  his  head  closely  cut,  and  had  his  face  smoothly 
shaved.  .  .  .  His  baldness  gave  him  much  uneasiness.  .  .  . 
He  therefore  used  to  bring  forward  the  hair  from  the  crown  of 
his  head  ;  and  of  all  the  honors  conferred  upon  him  by  the 
Senate  and  the  people,  there  was  none  which  he  either  accepted 
or  used  with  greater  pleasure,  than  the  right  of  wearing  con- 
stantly a  laurel  crown.  ...  In  regard  to  wine,  he  was  abste- 


186  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

mious.  ...  In  the  matter  of  diet,  ...  he  was  so  indifferent 
that,  when  a  person  in  whose  house  he  was  entertained  had 
served  him  with  stale  instead  of  fresh  oil,  and  the  rest  of  the 
company  would  not  touch  it,  he  alone  ate  very  heartily  of  it, 
that  he  might  not  seem  to  tax  the  master  of  the  house  with  rus- 
ticity or  want  of  attention.  .  .  .  Cicero,  in  recounting  to  Brutus 
the  famous  orators,  declares,  '  that  he  does  not  see  that  Caesar 
was  inferior  to  any  one  of  them,'  and  says  '  that  he  had  an 
elegant,  noble,  and  magnificent  vein  of  eloquence.'  ...  On  a 
march,  he  used  to  go  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  sometimes  on 
horseback,  but  oftener  on  foot,  with  his  head  bare  in  all  kinds  of 
weather.  He  would  travel  post ...  at  the  rate  of  a  hundred  miles 
a  day  ;  and  if  he  were  stopped  by  floods  in  the  rivers,  he  swam 
across,  or  floated  on  skins  inflated  with  wind.  .  .  .  He  never 
marched  his  army  by  roads  which  were  exposed  to  ambuscades, 
without  having  previously  examined  the  nature  of  the  ground  by 
his  scouts.  Nor  did  he  cross  over  to  Britain  before  he  had 
cai'efully  examined  in  person  the  navigation,  the  harbors,  and 
the  most  convenient  point  of  landing  in  the  island.  .  .  .  He  was 
never  deterred  from  any  enterprise,  nor  retarded  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  it,  by  superstition.  When  a  victim  which  he  was 
about  to  offer  in  sacrifice  made  its  escape,  he  did  not  therefore 
defer  his  expedition."  In  his  speeches  he  always  addressed  his 
men  as  "fellow-soldiers,"  and  loved  them  '"to  such  a  degree 
that,  when  he  heard  of  the  defeat  of  those  under  Titurius,  he 
neither  cut  his  hair  nor  shaved  his  beard  until  he  had  revenged 
it.  ...  Upon  his  entering  on  the  civil  war,  .  .  .  the  whole 
army  agreed  to  serve  gratis,  without  either  corn  or  pay,  those 
amongst  them  who  were  rich  charging  themselves  with  the 
maintenance  of  the  poor.  No  one  of  them,  during  the  whole 
course  of  the  war,  deserted  to  the  enemy ;  and  many  of  those 
who  were  made  prisoners,  though  the}'  were  offered  their  lives 
upon  condition  of  bearing  arms  against  him,  refused  to  accept 
the  terms."  Pompey,  when  besieged  by  the  Caesarians,  "  upon 
seeing  a  sort  of  bread  made  of  an  herb  which  they  lived  upon, 
said,  '  I  have  to  do  with  wild  beasts,'  and  ordered  it  immediatelv 


REPUBLICAN    ROME,    POST-PUNIC    PERIOD.  187 

to  be  taken  away,  because,  if  his  troops  should  see  it,  their 
spirit  might  be  broken  by  perceiving  the  endurance  and  the 
determined  resolution  of  the  enemy.  .  .  .  When  he  had  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  affairs,  he  advanced  some  of  his  faithful 
adherents,  though  of  mean  extraction,  to  the  highest  offices.  .  .  . 

"  On  the  field  of  Pharsalia  he  called  out  to  the  soldiers  '  to 
spare  their  fellow-citizens,'  and  afterwards  gave  permission  to 
every  man  in  his  army  to  save  an  enemy.  .  .  .  And,  finally,  a 
little  before  his  death,  he  permitted  all  whom  he  had  not  before 
pardoned,  to  return  into  Italy,  and  to  bear  offices  both  civil  and 
military.  He  even  replaced  the  statues  of  Sulla  and  Pompey, 
which  had  been  thrown  down  by  the  populace.  .  .  .  He  not  only 
obtained  excessive  honors,  such  as  the  consulship  every  year, 
the  dictatorship  for  life,  and  the  censorship,  but  also  the  title 
of  Emperor,  and  the  surname  of  FATHER  OF  HIS  COUNTRY.  .  .  . 
He  even  suffered  some  honors  to  be  decreed  to  him  which  were 
unbefitting  the  most  exalted  of  mankind  ;  such  as  ...  temples, 
altars,  statues  among  the  gods,  ...  a  priest,  and  a  college 
of  priests  dedicated  to  himself.  .  .  .  He  admitted  into  the 
Senate  .  .  .  even  natives  of  Gaul,  who  were  barbarians.  .  .  - 
Upon  the  admission  of  foreigners  into  the  Senate,  a  handbill 
was  posted  up,  in  these  words :  '  A  good  deed !  let  no  man 
show  a  new  senator  the  way  to  the  house.' " 

The  magistrates,  the  soldiers,  the  citizens,  and  the  matrons 
united  in  paying  the  honors  of  his  funeral,  and  "in  this  public 
mourning  there  joined  a  multitude  of  foreigners,  expressing 
their  sorrow  according  to  the  fashion  of  their  respective 
countries."  The  people  erected  in  his  honor  a  column  of 
Numidian  marble,  placing  it  in  the  Forum.  At  this  column 
they  continued  for  a  long  time  to  offer  sacrifices,  make  vows, 
and  decide  controversies,  in  which  they  swore  by  Caesar.  The 
Senate  also  ranked  him  among  the  gods  by  a  formal  decree. 

STUDY  ON  3,  c. 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  qualities  of  character  displayed  by  Caesar. 
Of  these,  which  gave  Caesar  power?  Which  were  unfavorable  to  him? 
What  material  means  did  he  employ  to  gain  power  ?  What  was  the 


188  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTOKY. 

final  and  decisive  means  by  which  he  won  it  ?  What  does  the  fact 
that  he  could  gain  power  by  such  means  show  of  the  people  of  Rome  ? 
What  difference  between  him  and  the  other  party-leaders  we  have 
seen?  In  what  was  he  their  superior?  What  party  did  he  represent? 
What  classes  of  people  did  he  favor  ?  What  was  his  attitude  towards 
Provincials  ?  Proofs.  What  classes  of  people  would  you  expect  to 
favor  and  support  Csesar?  Why?  What  was  his  object  in  life? 
In  how  many  ways  was  Csesar  great  ?  What  opinion  have  you  of  the 
way  he  gained  his  power?  Of  the  way  he  used  it?  Give  reasons  for 
each  opinion  from  the  facts  before  you.  What  was  the  reason  for  the 
opposition  to  Csesar?  Why  was  he  killed?  What  men  may  be 
regarded  as  the  predecessors  of  Csesar  in  Rome  ?  Was  his  death 
a  fortune  or  misfortune  to  Rome  ?  Why  ?  What  do  we  learn  of 
religion  at  Rome  from  the  life  of  Julius  Csesar  ?  Compare  his  career 
with  that  of  Pisistratus. 

d.    Extracts  Illustrative  of  Thought  of  the  Time. 

"  The  custom  of  reverence  for,  and  discipline  and  rights  of, 
the  augurs,  and  the  authority  of  the  college,  are  still  retained 
for  the  sake  of  their  influence  on  the  minds  of  the  common 
people."  But  "how  pitiful  is  the  nature  of  a  science,  which 
pretends  that  the  eccentric  motions  of  birds  are  full  of  ominous 
import,  and  that  all  manner  of  things  must  be  done,  or  left 
undone,  as  their  flights  and  songs  may  indicate  !  .  .  .  How, 
when,  and  by  whom  were  such  absurd  regulations  as  these 
invented?  .  .  .  Such  signs  may  be  easily  explained  by  refer- 
ence to  the  laws  of  nature." —  Cicero.- 


We  may  be  assured  ...  that  it  makes  not  the  least  differ- 
ence to  a  man,  when  immortal  death  has  ended  his  mortal  life, 
that  he  was  ever  born  at  all." — T.tit*rt>t.insi 


"  Alas  !  I  am  ashamed  of  our  scars  and  our  wickedness.  .  .  . 
What  have  we,  a  hardened  age,  avoided?  What  have  we  in 
our  impiety  left  unviolated?  From  what  have  our  youth  re- 
strained their  hands,  out  of  reverence  to  the  gods?  What 
altars  have  they  spared?" 

******* 

"  The  palace-like  edifices  will  in  a  short  time  leave  but  a  few 
acres  for  the  plough ;  .  .  .  then  banks  of  violets,  and  myrtle- 


REPUBLICAN   ROME,    POST-PUNIC    PERIOD.  189 

groves,  and  all  the  tribe  of  nosegays  shall  diffuse  their  odors  in 
the  olive  plantations,  which  were  fruitful  to  their  preceding 
master.  ...  It  was  not  so  prescribed  by  the  institutes  of 
Romulus,  and  the  unshaven  Cato,  and  ancient  custom.  Then 
private  income  was  contracted,  while  that  of  the  community 
was  great." 

******* 
"Who  can  fear  the  Parthian?  Who,  the  frozen  Scythian? 
Who,  the  progeny  that  rough  Germany  produces,  while  Caesar 
is  in  safety  ?  .  .  .  Every  man  puts  a  period  to  the  day  amidst 
his  own  hills,  and  weds  the  vine  to  the  widowed  elm-trees ; 
hence  he  returns  joyful  to  his  wine,  and  invites  thee  [Caesar], 
as  a  deity,  to  his  second  course  ;  thee  with  many  a  prayer,  thee 
he  pursues  witli  wine  poured  out  [in  libation]  from  the  cups  ; 
and  joins  thy  divinity  to  that  of  his  household  gods." — Horace. 

STUDY  ON  d. 

Considering  Cicero  a  typical  cultured  Roman  of  his  age,  how  did 
men  of  culture  regard  the  popular  faith  ?  What  was  apparently  the 
attitude  of  the  common  people  towards  it?  What  does  the  extract 
from  Lucretius  indicate  ?  Each  of  the  extracts  from  Horace  ?  What 
relation  between  each  of  the  extracts  given  under  d,  and  the  facts 
or  characteristics  noticed  in  the  later  Punic  period  ? 

GENERAL  STUDY  ON   ROMAN   REPUBLIC. 

What  single  ideal  had  the  Romans  during  the  whole  Republican 
period?  Give  instances  from  each  period.  What  new  ideals  were 
added?  When?  How  did  the  ideal  of  manners  change  during  this 
time  ?  Of  morals  ?  Of  culture  ?  What  will  you  select  as  the  most 
typically  Roman  age  of  the  Republic  ?  Why  ?  What  as  the  time  of 
its  greatest  glory?  Why?  What  causes  can  you  give  for  the  fall 
of  the  Republic  ?  When  did  these  causes  begin  to  act  ?  What  part 
of  the  civilization  of  Rome  was  Roman?  Whence  came  the  rest? 
What  general  statement  can  you  make  as  to  the  way  in  which  Rome 
secured  her  dominion  ?  In  what  order  did  she  win  it  ?  In  what 
period  was  religion  least  prominent? 


I      Hispama 
31     Gallia 
Iff     Briftania 
3T   Vindelica 
"¥    Rhaella 
HI     Noricum 
3ZIT    Italia 
IM    Pannonia. 
3£     lllyncum 
21     Dacia 
21    Moesia 

2K    Epirus 


XIII    Macedon 
SET  Achafa 

2Y  Thracia 
3YT  Mysia 


Lycia 


"XXYT 

IXXBTLycaoma 
"XX    Bithynia         XXVIII  Tilirm 
IXXTPhrygia  XXIX    Armenia 

IXSH  Galali  a          ^XXX!  Me-sopotami 
XX111   PnniiiR  XXXI    Syn'a 

_XX1V  CapPadocia"X7rXEEgypt 


rabia 
CyrenaT 
Afrka 


efraea 


N.  B.  —  The  names  of  to^wns  appear 


ROMAN  EMPIRE  underTRAJAN  -  abQut  IIG A.D. 


=  Western    Empfre  of  later  limes. 
—   Eastern   Empire      „        „  ,,• 

=  Towns  of  Oriental   foundation. 
=         ,,         ,.    Greek  „ 

=        >i        i,    Roman  i< 


w\\  Mauritania 


icir  modern,  not  their  Roman,  forms. 


192  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

C,   I.    STUDY   ON  THE   PAGAN    EMPIRE.  —  AUGUSTUS    TO 
CONSTANTINE,  27  B.C. -323  A.D. 

Chief  contemporary  authorities:  Seneca,  Suetonius, 
Tacitus,  the  two  Pliriys,  the  New  Testament,  Dion  Cassius, 
Justin  Martyr,  Tertullian,  Lactantius,  the  contemporary 
poets  (see  lists),  the  monuments  and  inscriptions  of  the 
empire  found  throughout  its  extent. 

Chief  modern  historians  accessible  in  English :  Gibbon, 
Merivale,  Duruy. 

QUESTIONS  ON   MAP. 

What  parts  of  the  empire  are  most  strongly  under  Roman  influ- 
ence ?  Greek  and  Oriental  ?  In  what  countries  are  vhese  three 
influences  mixed?  By  what  fact  do  you  judge  of  influence?  What 
countries  of  modern  Europe  formed  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire? 
Compare  the  location  of  the  cities  of  modern  Europe  with  the  foun- 
dations of  the  empire.  What  great  cities  of  Europe  do  not  owe 
their  foundation  to  the  empire  or  to  Greeks  and  Orientals  ?  Name 
the  four  cities  of  the  empire  which  are  greatest,  to-day.  What  re- 
lation does  the  Mediterranean  hold  to  the  lands  of  the  empire? 
What  two  facts  in  regard  to  the  foundation  of  cities  indicate  that 
there  was  much  commerce  between  the  various  parts  of  the  empire  ? 
What  provinces  of  Rome  were  uncivilized  before  their  conquest  ? 
What  provinces  were  civilized  ?  How  far  are  the  boundaries  of  the 
empire  natural? 


STUDY   ON   THE   PAGAN  EMPIBE. 


193 


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STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


STUDY  ON   I. 

Note  two  things  which  are  the  same  throughout  the  empire,  by  its 
organization.  Into  whose  hands  has  the  power  of  the  republican  mag- 
istrates passed  ?  Of  the  republican  assemblies  ?  Name  two  things 
which  sustain  this  power.  What  name  will  you  give  to  this  form  of 
government  ?  What  is  the  apparent  object  of  holding  the  provinces  ? 
What  differences  between  the  imperial  and  the  republican  armies  of 
Rome  V  What  name  is  given  to  such  a  sort  of  army  as  that  of  the 
empire?  With  such  a  constitution  on  what  does  Rome  depend  for 
good  or  bad  government?  The  inhabitants  of  the  empire  gain  the 
rights  of  Romans  by  entering  what  class?  What  people  conquered  by 
Rome  had  a  religion  which  would  not  admit  of  the  adoration  of  Rome 
and  the  emperor? 

2.   Imperial  List. 
Less  important  emperors  omitted,  but  indicated  by  a  *. 


Name  and 
Date. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Source  of 
Imperial  Power. 

Famous  Works. 

Events  and  Changes. 

AUGUSTUS, 

Of  wealthy 

Relationship 

Survey  of 

Conquest  of  Vende- 

27  B.C.- 

plebeian 

to  and 

the  whole 

lica,  Rhaetia,  and 

14  A.D. 

family  of 

adoption  by 

empire  ; 

Pannonia;  Romans 

equestrian 

Julius 

building  of 

defeated  in  Germany 

rank 

Caesar;  vic- 

roads, ca- 

by Arminius  (Her- 

(knight), 

tory  in  the 

nals,  aque- 

mann) ;  birth  of 

and  Italian 

civil  war 

ducts,  and 

CHRIST  (4  or  5  B.C.).1 

origin  ; 

against 

baths  (see 

soldier  and 

Mark 

Agrippa, 

general. 

Antony. 

under  3). 

Tiberius, 

Of  old  patri- 

Adoption by 

Securing  and 

Election  of  city 

14-37. 

cian  Roman 

and  relation 

strengthen- 

magistrates trans- 

family; gen- 

to Augus- 

ing of  the 

ferred  from  the 

eral,  promi- 

tus ;  accept- 

frontier 

popular  assemblies 

nent  in  the 

ed  by  the 

lines  of  the 

to  the  Senate  ;  Christ 

conquests  of 

Senate  and 

empire. 

crucified. 

Augustus. 

the  Prae- 

. 

torians. 

1  Modern  criticism  has  discovered  an  error  in  the  original  date  of  the 
year  of  our  Lord ;  hence  this  apparent  contradiction. 


STUDY   ON   THE   PAGAN   EMPIRE. 


197 


Name  and 
Date. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Source  of 
Imperial  Power. 

Famous  Works. 

Events  and  Changes. 

Claudius, 

jlrand- 

Relationship 

The  Claudi- 

Conquest  of  Southern 

41-54. 

nephcw  of 

to  Augus- 

an aqueduct 

Britain;  admission 

Augustus, 

tus;  choice 

of  Rome  ; 

of  Transalpine  Gauls 

born  at 

of  soldiers. 

a  new  har- 

to the  Senate. 

Lyons. 

bor  at  Ostia. 

Nero, 

Latin  ; 

bribery  of 

A  palace  for 

Visit  of  Paul  to 

54-68. 

adopted 

the  soldiers 

himself, 

Rome  ;  the  burning 

grandson  of 

to  proclaim 

called  the 

of  Rome  by  Nero  ("?); 

Tiberius. 

him  empe- 

" Golden 

the  accusation  and 

ror;  in- 

House of 

persecution  of  the 

trigues  of 

Nero." 

Christians  for  this 

his  mother. 

crime. 

Uivil  wars  for  impe- 
rial office. 

Vespasian, 

Sabine,  of 

Proclama- 

Baths of 

Conquest  of  Judaea 

70-79. 

ordinary  _ 

tion  by  the 

Titus,  and 

and  the  destruction. 

family; 

eastern  le- 

the Colis- 

of Jerusalem. 

prominent 

gions  at 

eum  ;  tri- 

in conquest 

Alexandria  ; 

umphal  arch 

of  Britain  ; 

victory  over 

of  Titus  for 

commander 

the  armies 

Jewish 

in  conquest 

of  his  rival, 

victory. 

of  Judaea. 

and  accep- 

tance by 

the  Senate. 

Titus, 

Son  of  Ves- 

Birth ;  part- 

Finished 

Eruption  of  Vesu- 

79-81. 

pasian;  gen- 

nership in 

Coliseum  ; 

vius;  destruction  of 

eral  in  the 

empire  with 

rebuilt  at 

Pompeii  and  Hercu- 

East. 

father;  pro- 

own expense 

laneum;  persecu- 

clamation 

the  build- 

tion of  the  Chris- 

by legions 

ings  de- 

tians. 

and  accep- 

stroyed at 

tance  by 

Rome  by  a 

Senate. 

three  days' 

fire. 

198 


STUDIES    IN   GENERAL    HISTORY. 


PART   OF   THE   CLAUDIAN  AQUEDUCT. 

Built  under  the  Emperor  Claudius,  in  order  to  bring  the  pure  water  of  the  Latin  hills 
to  Rome.  The  water  ran  through  a  stone  channel  supported  on  top  of  the  arches;  its 
size  and  shape  may  be  seen  at  the  broken  end  of  the  aqueduct  in  the  foreground. 


Name  and 
Date. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Source  of 
Imperial  Power. 

Famous  Works. 

Events  and  Changes. 

Domitian, 

Son  of 

Birth  ;  pro- 

*    *     * 

Final  cor  quest  of 

81-96. 

Vespasian. 

clamation 

Britain  by  his  gen- 

of soldiers 

eral,  Agricola. 

and  accep- 

tance of 

Senate. 

Nerva, 

Of  Cretan 

Election  of 

Author  of 

*         *         * 

96-98. 

extraction  ; 

the  Senate  ; 

Agrarian 

a  senator. 

consent  of 

law,  by 

the  armies. 

which  large 

tracts  of 

land  were 

bought  up, 

and  allotted 

to  poor  citi- 

zens ;  pro- 

STUDY   OK   THE   PAGAN   EMPIRE. 


199 


THE   COLISEUM. 

Erected  for  the'accommodation  of  the  Roman  people  when  they  wished  to  see  the 
combats  of  gladiators,  wild  beasts,  pugilists,  and  other  entertainments  furnished  by  the 
emperors.  The  seats  surrounded  and  looked  down  upon  the  arena  from  different  heights. 
The  building  was  planned  to  hold  80,000  spectators. 


Name  and 
Date. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Source  of 
Imperial  Power. 

Famous  Works. 

Events  and  Changes. 

vided  for 

regular 

mainten- 

ance at  pub- 

lic cost  of 

• 

the  poor 

children  of 

Italian 

towns. 

TRAJAN, 

Spaniard  ;    a 

Adoption  by 

Line  of  de- 

Conquered Dacia  for 

98-117. 

prominent 

Nerva  ; 

fences  from 

the  empire  perma- 

general in 

popularity 

the  Rhino 

nently;  persecuted 

the  East 

in  the  ar- 

to  the  Dan- 

the  Christians  in 

200 


STUDIES    IK    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


'lame  and 
Date. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Source  of 
Imperial  Pouter. 

Famous  Works, 

Events  and  Changes. 

and  on  the 

mies,  and 

ube  ;  aque- 

the East. 

Ehine. 

acceptance 

ducts  in 

by  the 

provinces; 

Senate. 

bridges  over 

Danube  and 

other  great 

rivers;  a 

triumphal 

column  in 

Rome; 

roads  and 

fortresses 

in  Dacia  ; 

triumphal 

arches  to 

celebrate 

repair  of 

harbors  and 

roads. 

Hadrian, 

Of  Italian 

Related  to 

Built  a  for- 

Reformed the  disci- 

117-138. 

family  long 

his  guard- 

tified ram- 

pline of  the  army  ; 

settled  in 

ian,  Trajan, 

part  (Picts' 

reduced  the  law  of 

Spain  ; 

by  birth 

wall)  across 

Rome  and  Italy  to  a 

general. 

and  mar- 

Britain ; 

uniform  and  perma- 

riage ;  com- 

built a  mau- 

nent standard  ;  made 

mander  of 

soleum  for 

the  Council  of  State 

Syrian 

himself 

a  high  court  of 

army. 

(now  Castle 

justice. 

of  San 

Angelo), 

and  a  fa- 

mous villa  ; 

built  bridges 

and  tem- 

ples ;  re- 

stored 

drainage 

of  Rome. 

STUDY   OX    THE   PAGAN    EMPIRE. 


201 


TRAJAN  AND   THE   LICTORS. 
(Marble  relief  from  Trajan's  Forum.) 


Name  and 
Date. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Source  of 
Imperiat  Power. 

Famous  Works. 

Events  and  Changes, 

Antoninus 

Of  Gallic 

Adoption  by 

Wall  built 

None  ;  peace  and 

Pius, 

origin  ;  of 

Hadrian  ; 

from  Forth 

toleration. 

138-161. 

high  rank 

acceptance 

to  Clyde  ; 

and  office. 

by  Senate. 

founded  a 

charity  for 

orphan 

girls. 

202 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


MOSAIO  FROM  THE   BATHS  OF   CARACALLA.    REPRESENTING   FAMOUS   GLADIATORS. 


STUDY    OX    THE    PAGAX    EMPIRE. 


203 


Name  and 
Date. 

f  Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Source  of 
Imperial  Power. 

Famous  Works. 

Events  and  Changes. 

MARCUS 

Nephew  of 

Adoption  by 

Triumphal 

Reduction  of  Parthia, 

Al'KK- 

Antoninus  ; 

Antoninus 

column  to 

and  defeat  of  Ger- 

LICS, 161 

of  Spanish 

and  accep- 

celebrate 

manic  barbarians  on 

-180. 

origin;  Ro- 

tance by 

his  German 

northern  frontier. 

man  birth. 

the  Senate. 

victories  ; 

author  of 

philosophi- 

cal (Stoic) 

meditations. 

Septimius 

African, 

Proclama- 

A triumphal 

*         #         #         * 
Replaced  the  Praj- 

Severus, 

from  near 

tion  by  le- 

arch at 

torian  guards  by 

193-211. 

Carthage  ; 

gions  of 

Rome. 

soldiers  from  the 

prominent 

Pannonia, 

frontiers  ;  persecu- 

and excel- 

who con- 

tion of  the  Chris- 

lent com- 

quered the 

tians. 

mander. 

armies  of 

his  rival 

candidates  ; 

acceptance 

by  Senate. 

Caracalla, 

Son  of 

Appoint- 

Baths of 

Made  every  free 

211-217. 

Septimius 

ment  of  his 

Caracalla. 

inhabitant  of  the 

Severus, 

father  and 

empire  a  Roman 

born  in 

murder  of 

citizen  ;  massacre  of 

Gaul. 

his  brother, 

Alexandrians  on 

also  ap- 

account of  their 

pointed  by 

allusions  to  his 

the  father; 

fratricide. 

declaration 

by  Praetor- 

ians; ac- 

ceptance by 

the  Senate. 

Constant  civil  war 
between  rival  im- 

perial candidates 

and  their  supporting 

armies. 

204 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


•  -i      '    •• 

Name  and 
Date. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Source  of 
Imperial  Power. 

Famous  Works 

Events  antt  Changes. 

Decius, 

Roman  sen- 

Declared by 

Great  defeat  by  the 

249-251. 

ator  and 

the  Mcesian 

Goths,  who  retreated 

general  ; 

army  in  re- 

on being  promised 

Pannonian. 

volt  against 

an  annual  sum  of 

reigning 

money  ;  general  per- 

emperor. 

secution  of 

Christians. 

Wars  with  Persians 
and  with  Goths  ; 

civil  wars  between 

various  (at  one  time 

thirty)  imperial  can- 

* 

didates  and  their 

armies  ;   persecution 

of   Christians; 

empire  ravaged  by 

plague.1 

Claudius 

From  Illyri- 

Choice  of 

*     *     * 

Great  victories  over 

II.,  268- 

cum;  low 

predecessor; 

the  Goths  ;  a  picked 

270. 

birth;  sol- 

acceptance 

body  of  Goths  placed 

dier;  gene- 

of army. 

in  the  Roman  army. 

ral. 

Aurelian, 

Peasant  of 

Proclama- 

New defen- 

Ended the  Gothic 

270-275. 

Illyria;  vic- 

tion by  the 

sive  wall  for 

war;  drove  back  the 

torious 

legions  and 

Rome. 

Germans  from  Italy  ; 

general  of 

acceptance 

conquered  Zenobia, 

Claudius. 

by  the 

empress  of  Syria  ; 

Senate. 

gave  Goths  a  per- 

manent settlement 

in  Dacia  beyond  the 

Danube;  admitted 

Goths  to  imperial 

body-guard  ;  perse- 

cution of  Christians. 

1  Gibbon  calculates  that  nearly  half  the  inhabitants  of  the  empire  per- 
ished at  this  time  by  war,  famine,  and  pestilence. 


STUDY  ON  THE  PAGAN  EMPIRE. 


205 


Name  and 
Date. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Source  of 
Imperial  Power. 

Famous  Works. 

Events  and  Changes. 

DIOCLE- 

Son of  Dal- 

Proclama- 

Baths in 

Divided  the  empire  1 

TIAN, 

matian 

tion  by  the 

Rome  ;  a 

between  two  rulers 

284-305, 

freedman  or 

legions  of 

splendid 

and  two  capitals 

serf;  com- 

the East; 

and  exten- 

(Nicaea and 

mander  of 

victory  over 

sive  palace 

Milan).     Each  ruler 

and 

the  former 

the  army  of 

for  himself 

(Augustus)  had  an 

emperor's 

his  rival. 

at  Spalatro 

assistant  (Caesar), 

body-guard. 

in  Dalmatia. 

wore  a  diadem,  and 

required  his  subjects 

to  approach  him 

prostrate,  adoring 

his  divinity;  ap- 

pointed consuls  with- 

out consent  of  Sen- 

ate ;  general  perse- 

cution of  Christians  ; 

subdued  rebellion  in 

Egypt. 

Maximian, 

Illyrian 

Choice  of 

Circus,  thea- 

Subdued, by  his 

280-305. 

peasant; 

Diocletian 

tre,  baths, 

assistant  Caesar,  the 

soldier; 

and  the 

etc.,  at 

revolting  provinces 

general. 

army. 

Milan. 

of  the  west. 

*        *        *        * 

STUDY    ON    2. 

Among  the  events  and  changes  given  in  the  imperial  list,  select 
those  which  were  constitutional.  What  was  the  tendency  of  these 
changes?  In  which  century  were  these  changes  most  radical?  In 
whom  did  they  culminate  ?  What  effect  had  they  upon  the  equality 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  empire  ?  What  classes  gained  in  equality  V 
Under  what  forms  did  the  empire  exist  up  to  the  time  of  Diocletian? 
How  will  you  describe  the  lorm  of  government  established  by  him  ? 
What  was  the  final  basis  of  the  imperial  power  ?  How  proved  to  be 
so  from  these  lists  ?  What  remark  can  you  make  of  the  hereditary 

1  The  Western  division  comprised  Italy,  Gaul,  Britain,  Spain,  Africa ; 
the  Eastern,  Greece,  Macedonia,  Egypt,  Asia  Minor.  (See  map.) 


206 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


nature  of  the  imperial  office  ?  Illustrate.  Was  such  a  change  for  the 
worse  or  better  ?  Why  ?  What  part  of  the  empire  was  represented 
by  the  emperors  as  a  whole?  Prove  it.  How  were  the  provinces 
better  off  under  the  emperors  than  under  the  republic  ?  What  strikes 
you  as  the  great  fault  of  the  constitution?  What  light  does  the 
origin  of  the  emperors  throw  on  the  equality  of  men  in  the  empire?  of 
equality  in  the  earlier  as  compared  with  the  later  years  of  the  period  ? 


3.    List  of  Great  Men  of  the  Pagan  Empire,  exclusive 
of  Emperors. 

a.  Men  of  the  Augustan  Age  and  the  First  Century.     (Men  of 
the  Augustan  Age  marked  *.) 


Name. 

Birth  and  Circumstances. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language 
used. 

*Agrippa. 

Of  obscure  birth  ;  Ro- 

Projected the  Panthe- 

Latin. 

man  general,  and 

on  j  made  a  survey 

associated  with  Au- 

and map  of  whole 

gustus  in  magistracy 

empire  for  Augustus  ; 

of  Rome. 

made  fine  military 

roads  in  Gaul  and 

aqueduct  of  Nimes. 

*Diodorus. 

Sicilian  Greek  ; 

Author  of  general  his- 

Greek. 

travelled  in  all  parts 

tory  of  the  civilized 

of  the  empire  to  get 

world  up  to  his  own 

material  for  his  his- 

time. 

tory  ;  lived  at  Rome. 

*Dionysius. 

Asiatic  Greek  ;  lived  at 

Author  of  History  of 

Greek. 

Rome. 

Rome  ;  literary  critic 

and  rhetorician. 

Epictetus. 

A  Phrygian  slave, 

Teacher  of  the  Stoic 

Greek. 

owned  by  a  freedman 

philosophy. 

of  Nero  in  Rome. 

*Horace. 

Son  of  an  Apulian 

Author  of  poems,  satir- 

Latin. 

freedman. 

izing  human  nature 

and  contemporary 

manners. 

Josephus. 

Jew  of  most  illustrious 

Historian  of  Judaea. 

Greek. 

lineage. 

STUDY  ON  THE  PAGAN  EMPIRE. 


207 


THE  PANTHEON   OP  AGRIPPA. 

The  two  little  bell-topped  towers  are  an  addition  of  modern  times.    The  rest  is  according 
to  the  Roman  plan. 


Name. 

Birth  and  Circumstances. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language 
used. 

*Livy. 

Paduan  by  birth  and 
education;    of  consu- 

Author of  a  History  of 
Rome  from  its  foun- 

Latin. 

lar  rank. 

dation. 

Lucan. 

Spaniard  of  Italian 
origin  and  equestrian 
rank. 

Author  of  poem  on 
civil  wars  of  Pompey 
and  Caesar. 

Latin. 

Martial. 

Native  Spaniard. 

Writer  of  epigrams,  or 
short  and  pithy  poems, 
generally  satirical, 

Latin. 

upon  contemporary 
life  and  manners. 

208 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


Birth  and  Circumstances. 


Cause  of  Fame. 


Language 


*Maecenas. 

*0vid. 
Quintilian. 
Pliny  the  Elder. 

Seneca. 
*Virgil. 

*Vitruvius. 


Roman  knight. 


Italian  of  equestrian 

rank. 
Spaniard  of  official 

rank. 
From  Cisalpine  Gaul, 

and  of  noble  family  ; 

magistrate  and  inspec- 
tor of  finances. 
Spaniard  by  birth  and 

education ;  knight  and 

senator. 
Mantuan  freeholder, 

educated  at  Cremona 

and  Milan. 

Ot  Verona;  inspector 
of  public  buildings  for 
Augustus. 


Friend  and  first  adviser 
or  minister  of  Augus- 
tus ;  patron  of  literary 
men,  notably  Horace 
and  Virgil. 

Poet,  using  Greek  ma- 
terials and  forms. 

Writer  on  rhetoric  and 
oratory;  lawyer. 

Writer  on  natural  sci- 
ence, and  student. 


Philosophical  writer  of 
Stoic  school. 


Author  of  the  " 
an  epic  modelled  after 
Homer,  descriptive  of 
the  founding  of  Rome 

Architect,  and  author 
of  work  on  architec- 
ture. 


b.  Men  of  Second  Century. 


Apuleius. 


Arrian. 


African  of  magisterial 
rank. 


Asiatic  Greek  of  poor 
but  honorable  birth ; 
high  Roman  magis- 
trate. 


Author  of  "  Golden 
Ass,"  a  story  founded 
on  Greek  originals, 
but  satirizing  contem- 
porary manners. 

Biographies  of  Alexan- 
der and  his  succes- 
sors ;  wrote  on  geo- 
graphy and  the  mili- 
tary art. 


STUDY  ON  THE  PAGAN  EMPIRE. 


209 


Birth  and  Circumstances. 


Cause  of  Fame. 


Languag 
•serf. 


Galon. 

Justin  Martyr. 

Juvenal. 
Lucian. 

Plutarch. 
Ptolemy. 


Pausanias. 

Pliny  the 

Younger. 


Son  of  a  wealthy  archi- 
tect at  Pergamos ; 
studied  at  Alexandria; 
lived  at  Rome. 

Greek  of  Samaria. 


Son  of  Italian  freed- 
man ;  Roman  magis- 
trate. 

Of  a  poor  Syrian 
family. 


Boeotian  Greek  of  hon- 
orable family. 

Egyptian,  studying  and 
observing  at  Alexan- 
dria. 


Lydian. 

Of  Cisalpine  Gaul ; 
Roman  magistrate. 


Author  of  medical 
works ;  physician  of 
Marcus  Aurelius. 

Apologist l  and  Chris- 
tian philosopher  and 
martyr,  under  Marcus 
Aurelius. 

Author  of  poems  satiri- 
zing contemporary 
life. 

Author  of  satirical  dia- 
logue dealing  with 
contemporary  thought 
life,  knowledge,  and 
faith. 

Biographer  of  famous 
Greeks  and  Romans. 

Astronomer,  mathema- 
tician, and  geo- 
grapher; taught  that 
the  earth  is  round  and 
the  centre  about 
which  the  heavens 
turn ;  author  of  the 
"  Almagest,"  a  work 
on  astronomy,  con- 
taining important  lists 
of  stars. 

Traveller;  geographi- 
cal writer. 

Lawyer ;  writer  of 
letters  descriptive  of 
contemporary 
manners. 


1  Apologist :  one  who  made  a  literary  defence  of  Christianity,  addressed 
to  the  pagan  world. 


210 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Name. 

Birth  and  Circumstances. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language 
used. 

Suetonius. 

Son  of  a  soldier. 

Biographer  of  the 

Latin. 

twelve  Caesars  (Julius 

to  Domitian). 

Tacitus. 

Italian  ;  Roman  magis- 

Historian of  nearly 

Latin. 

trate  and  patrician. 

contemporary  Roman 

events  ;  author  of  the 

"  Germania,"  a  de- 

scription of  the 

Germans. 

During  this  century  the  books  of   the  New  Testament  received  their 
canonical  form  in  Greek. 


c.  Men  of  Third  Century. 


Cassius,  Dion. 


Clement,  St. 


Cyprian,  St. 


Lactantius. 


Of  Asia  Minor;  Roman 
magistrate;  senator 
and  governor. 

Of  Alexandria ;  head 
of   the  Christian 
school  there. 

Born  at  Carthage ;  of  a 
distinguished  family ; 
well  educated  in  phil- 
osophy and  literature ; 
Bishop  of  Carthage. 


African^);  studied 
near  Carthage. 


Author  of  a  history  of 
Rome. 


Author  of  works  on 
Christian  doctrine  and 
practice. 

Sold  his  goods  for  the 
sake  of  the  poor; 
lived  austerely  and 
alone ;  regarded  as 
father  of  the  poor; 
wrote  moral,  religious, 
and  theological  works 
and  letters. 

Famous  orator  and 
apologist  for  the 
Christians;  poet; 
author  of  philosophic 
and  religious  writings 
and  letters. 


Greek. 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Latin 


STUDY   ON   THE   PAGAN    EMPIRE. 


211 


ind  Circumstances. 


Cause  of  Fame. 


Language 
used. 


Origeru 


Porphyry. 


Tertullian. 


Ulpian. 


Of  Alexandria;  finely 
educated  in  literature, 
philosophy,  theology. 


Syrio-Phoenician ; 
studied  at  Alexandria 
and  Rome. 

Carthage;  son  of  a 
soldier. 


Of  Tyre;  Roman 
magistrate. 


Teacher  and  preacher 
at  Alexandria ;  of 
ascetic  life ;  had  but 
one  cloak,  slept  on 
the  ground,  ate  as 
little  as  possible, 
wrote  commentaries 
and  theological 
works  of  philosophi- 
cal character. 

Author  of  philosophi- 
cal and  critical  works 
opposed  Christian 
doctrine;  Platonist. 

Author  of  arguments 
against  pagan  belief 
and  practice ;  of 
moral  and  theological 
writings;  Montanist; 
taught  severest 
asceticism. 

Author  of  works  on 
law. 


Greek. 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


STUDY  ON   3. 

What  general  remark  can  you  make  in  regard  to  the  origin  and 
circumstances  of  the  great  men  of  the  pagan  empire  ?  Compare  with 
republican  Rome.  What  is  indicated  by  this  difference  ?  What  does 
this  list  indicate  in  regard  to  the  civilization  of  the  provinces  ?  From 
whom  did  the  western  provinces  (Gaul,  Spain,  Africa)  take  their  civili- 
zation ?  From  whom  the  eastern  ?  Prove  it.  What  unity  does  this 
same  fact  prove  existed  in  the  empire ?  With  what  division?  What 
province  came  first  into  prominence  ?  What  reason  can  you  think  of 
for  this  ?  What  kind  of  work  seems  to  have  been  the  most  popular  at 
Rome  ?  What  was  original  to  the  Romans  ?  What  was  the  strongest 
intellectual  influence  felt  by  the  Romans  ?  Instances.  —  (Take  one 


212  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

from  the  picture  of  the  Pantheon.)  Compare  the  three  centuries  in 
point  of  intellectual  activity.  To  what  class  of  Romans  is  this  sort 
of  activity  almost  entirely  confined  in  the  third  century?  What 
inference  can  you  draw  from  this  as  to  the  influence  and  culture  of 
this  class? 

GENERAL  STUDY  ON  2  AND  3. 

Which  was  the  most  excellent  century  of  imperial  rule?  Which  the 
worst?  Illustrate  by  number  of  emperors,  by  literature,  by  events  and 
changes,  by  imperial  works,  by  comparison  of  pictures  on  p.  201  and 
p.  202.  What  kind  of  things  do  the  imperial  works  show  the  Romans 
to  have  cared  for  ?  What  sort  of  ability  is  indicated  by  these  works  ? 
What  new  construction  do  you  find  employed  in  the  Pantheon  which 
you  have  not  seen  used  by  any  other  people?  If  Trajan  and  the 
Lictors  (p.  201)  and  the  Gladiators  (p.  202)  be  typical  Roman  work, 
what  difference  do  you  note  between  Greek  and  Roman  material  in  art  ? 

What  outside  danger  threatened  Rome  more  and  more?  What 
indication  of  this  danger  in  the  works  of  the  emperors  ?  What  great 
change  in  the  population  and  the  army  began  to  take  place  in  the 
third  century?  What  facts  show  this  change?  Give  two  proofs  of 
the  extensive  spread  of  Christianity. 

4.  Extracts  Illustrative  of  Life  and  Thought  of  the 
Pagan   Empire. 

a.    The  Vision   and   Prophecy  of  Augustus.       (From   Virgil's 


"  This,  this  is  the  man  whom  you  have  often  heard  promisee! 
to  you,  Augustus  Caesar,  the  offspring  of  a  god  ;  who  once 
"more  shall  establish  the  golden  age  .  .  .  and  shall  extend  his 
empire  .  .  .  beyond  the  sun's  annual  course,  where  Atlas,  sup- 
porting heaven  on  his  shoulders,  turns  the  axle  studded  with 
flaming  stars."  Thus  Virgil  elsewhere  speaks  of  Augustus  : 
"A  god  hath  vouchsafed  us  this  trauquillity  ;  for  to  me  he  shall 
always  be  a  god  ;  a  tender  lamb  from  our  folds  shall  often  stain 
his  altar  [with  his  blood]." 

1  According  to  favorite  Roman  legend,  Rome  was  founded  by  ^Eneas, 
one  of  the  Trojan  heroes  who  fled  from  the  ruin  of  Troy.  His  adventures 
form  the  subject  of  the  "JEneid."  In  the  course  of  them  he  is  foretold  the 
future  greatness  of  Rome,  and  sees  a  vision  of  its  heroes. 


STUDY   ON   THE   PAGAN   EMPIRE.  213 

b.  From  Epictetus. 

"  Caesar  has  procured  us  a  profound  peace  ;  there  are  neither 
wars,  nor  battles,  nor  great  robberies,  nor  piracies  ;  but  we  may 
travel  at  all  hours,  and  sail  from  east  to  west."  (Under  Nero.) 

c.  From  Tacitus.     A  Letter  of  Tiberius  to  the  Senate  in  Answer 

to  a  Request  for  Sumptuary  Laws. 

"  But  what  is  it  that  I  am  first  to  prohibit?  what  excess  re- 
trench to  the  ancient  standard?  Am  I  to  begin  with  that  of 
our  country  seats,  spacious  without  bounds  ;  and  with  the  num- 
ber of  domestics,  from  various  countries?  or  with  the  quantity 
of  silver  and  gold?  or  with  the  pictures,  and  statues  of  brass, 
the  wonders  of  art?  or  with  vestments,  promiscuously  worn  by 
men  and  women  ?  .  .  .  It  is  wonderful  that  nobody  lays  before 
the  Senate  .  .  .  that  the  lives  of  the  Roman  people  are  daily 
exposed  to  the  mercy  of  uncertain  seas  and  tempests ;  were  it 
not  for  our  supplies  from  the  provinces  —  supplies  by  which  the 
masters,  and  their  slaves,  and  their  estates  are  maintained  — 
would  our  groves,  forsooth,  and  villas  maintain  us?" 

Tlie  First  Persecution  of  the  Christians. 

The  name  of  Nero  has  become  the  synonym  for  all  that  is 
vile  and  cruel.  He  poisoned  his  rival,  the  son  of  the  former 
emperor ;  he  caused  his  mother  and  his  first  wife  to  be  assassi- 
nated ;  his  second  wife  died  from  the  effects  of  a  kick ;  his 
companions  were  the  vilest  men  of  Rome,  in  whose  company  he 
played  the  gladiator  and  the  robber ;  it  was  the  current  belief  of 
antiquity  that  he  himself  set  fire  to  Rome.  "  To  suppress  this 
rumor,"  says  Tacitus,  "  he  falsely  charged  with  the  guilt,  and 
punished  with  the  most  exquisite  tortures,  the  persons  com- 
monly called  Christians.  .  .  .  And  in  their  deaths  they  were 
also  made  the  subjects  of  sport,  for  they  were  covered  with  the 
hides  of  wild  beasts  and  worried  to  death  by  dogs,  or  nailed  to 
crosses,  or  set  fire  to,  and  when  day  declined,  burned  to  serve 
for  nocturnal  lights.  Nero  offered  his  own  gardens  for  that 
spectacle,  and  exhibited  a  Circensian  game,  indiscriminately 


214  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTOEY. 

mingling  with  the  common  people  in  the  habit  of  a  charioteer, 
or  else  standing  in  his  chariot." 

How  Otho  became  Emperor. 

The  last  of  the  Csesar  family  died  in  Nero,  and  the  legions 
of  Spain  proclaimed  their  general,  Galba,  emperor ;  on  arriving 
at  Rome  he  addressed  the  praetorian  guards,  but  '.'  added  no 
flattery  nor  hopes  of  a  donation."  Meanwhile  Otho,  a  boon 
companion  of  Nero,  "  had  been  in  the  habit  of  courting  the 
affections  of  the  army.  ...  On  their  march,  in  the  lines,  at 
their  quarters,  he  made  it  his  business  to  converse  freely  with 
all,  ...  and  with  his  interest  and  his  purse  was  ready  to  be 
their  friend.  .  .  .  With  malignant  insinuation  glancing  at 
Galba,  he  omitted  nothing  that  could  fill  the  vulgar  mind  with 
discontent.  .  .  .  The  loss  of  the  donative,  so  often  promised 
and  still  withheld,  was  the  topic  enforced  to  inflame  the  minds 
of  the  common  men.  .  .  .  The  vile  and  profligate  were  so 
ready  for  mutiny  and  the  upright  to  connive,  that,  on  the 
day  after  the  Ides  of  January,  they  formed  a  resolution  to  take 
Otho  under  their  care  .  .  .  and  .  .  .  proclaim  him  emperor.  .  .  . 
The  whole  populace,  in  the  meantime,  with  a  crowd  of  slaves 
intermixed,  crowded  the  palace,  demanding,  with  discordant 
cries,  vengeance  on  the  head  of  Otho  and  his  partisans,  as 
though  they  were  clamoring  in  the  circus  or  amphitheater  for 
some  spectacle.  .  .  .  Meanwhile,  the  praetorian  guards  with 
one  voice  declared  for  Otho.  The}7  ranged  themselves  in  a 
body  round  his  person,  and  .  .  .  the  whole  camp  resounded  with 
shouts  and  tumults  and  mutual  exhortations.  .  .  .  They  rec- 
ommended the  prince  of  their  own  choice  to  the  affections  of 
the  men,  and  the  men,  in  their  turn,  to  the  favor  of  the  prince. 
Otho,  on  his  part,  omitted  nothing ;  he  paid  his  court  to  the 
rabble  with  his  hands  outstretched,  scattering  kisses  in  pro- 
fusion, and,  in  order  to  be  emperor,  crouching  like  a  slave.  .  .  . 

"Galba,  meanwhile,  was  borne  in  various  directions  according 
as  the  waving  multitude  impelled  him.  The  temples,  and  great 
halls  around  the  forum,  were  filled  with  crowds  of  sorrowing 
spectators.  A  deep  and  sullen  silence  prevailed ;  the  very 


STUDY    ON   THE   PAGAN    EMPIRE.  215 

rabble  was  hushed  ;  amazement  sat  ou  every  face.  .  .  .  Otho, 
however,  received  intelligence  that  the  populace  had  recourse  to 
arms,  and  thereupon  ordered  his  troops  to  push  forward  with 
rapidity.  .  .  .  The}*  entered  the  city,  they  dispersed  the 
common  people,  trampled  the  Senate  under  foot ;  with  swords 
drawn,  and  horses  at  full  speed,  they  burst  into  the  forum.  .  .  . 
The  people  fled  in  consternation ;  such  as  hesitated  were 
attacked  sword  in  hand."  Galba  was  slain,  and  "another 
Senate  and  another  people  seemed  now  to  be  in  possession  of 
Rome.  All  pressed  forward  to  the  camp.  Every  man  en- 
deavored to  distance  those  near  him,  and  strive  with  those 
before  him.  The}'  reviled  Galba,  and  applauded  the  judgment 
of  the  soldiers.  They  kissed  the  hands  of  Otho,  and  in  propor- 
tion to  their  want  of  sincerity,  .  .  .  multiplied  their  compli- 
ments. .  .  .  The  fathers  assembled  without  delay.  The  tribu- 
nitian  power,  the  name  of  Augustus,  and  all  imperial  honors 
enjoyed  by  former  princes,  were  by  their  decree  granted  to 
Otho." 
From  the  Dialogue  on  Oratory. 

"What  is  our  present  practice?  the  infant  is  committed  to 
some  wretched  creature  in  the  shape  of  a  Greek  chambermaid, 
assisted  in  her  task  by  a  slave  or  two,  generally  the  very  worst 
in  the  whole  household,  and  unfit  for  the  discharge  of  any 
office  of  trust.  From  the  fables,  and  worse  than  idle  tales  of 
these  people,  the  mind  of  the  child  receives  its  first  coloring. 
There  is  not  a  single  person  in  the  whole  household  who  troubles 
himself  in  the  slightest  degree  about  what  he  says  or  does 
before  his  youthful  master.  ...  In  these  days  the  patronage 
of  actors,  the  passion  for  horses  and  gladiators  .  .  .  seems  im- 
pressed, if  I  may  say  so,  upon  the  very  infants  ;  and  when  once 
the  mind  has  been  beset  ...  by  things  like  these,  what  room  is 
left  for  honorable  pursuits ;  what  else  is  the  subject  of  conver- 
sation in  the  domestic  circle?  If  we  enter  our  schools,  what 
else  do  we  hear  our  boys  talking  about?  '  Nav,  this  is  the  most 
usual  topic  with  which  even  the  teachers  amuse  their  pupils." 
Says  Quintiliau  on  this  same  subject :  ' '  Before  the  child  can 


216  STUDIES   IK   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

talk,  he  understands  all  about  the  merits  of  the  cook ;  he  calls 
for  delicacies.  We  educate  their  palates  before  we  teach  them 
how  to  speak." 

d.   From  the  Letters  of  the  Younger  Pliny. 

"  I  had  the  great  pleasure  of  hearing  from  our  common 
friends  that  you  take  your  leisure  and  lay  it  out  as  a  man  of 
your  good  sense  ought ;  living  down  in  a  charming  part  of  the 
country,  and  varying  your  amusements,  —  sometimes  driving, 
sometimes  going  out  for  a  sail,  holding  frequent  learned  discus- 
sions and  conferences,  reading  a  good  deal,  and,  in  a  word, 
daily  increasing  that  fund  of  knowledge  you  already  possess. 
This  is  to  grow  old  in  a  way  worthy  of  one  who  has  discharged 
the  highest  offices  both  civil  and  military,  and  who  gave  himself 
up  entirely  to  the  service  of  the  state  while  it  became  him  to 

do  so." 

******* 

' '  I  had  taken  refuge  in  my  villa  at  Tuscum,  in  hopes  of  passing 
my  time  here,  at  least,  in  my  own  way  ;  but  that  is  a  privilege, 
I  find,  I  am  not  to  enjoy  even  here  ;  so  greatly  am  I  interrupted 
with  the  troublesome  complaints  and  petitions  of  my  tenants, 
whose  accounts  I  look  over  with  more  reluctance  than  I  do  my 
own ;  for  really  it  is  with  great  unwillingness  I  examine  even 
these.  .  .  .  Meanwhile,  my  domestic  affairs  are  neglected  as 
much  as  if  I  were  away." 

******* 

"The  getting  in  of  my  vintage  .  .  .  particularly  employs  me  at 
present,  if  getting  it  in  means  gathering  a  grape  now  and  then, 
visiting  the  winepress,  tasting  the  must  in  the  vat,  and  saunter- 
ing up  to  my  servants,  who,  being  all  engaged  out  of  doors, 
have  wholly  abandoned  me  to  my  readers  and  my  secretaries." 

Under  Trajan,  Pliny  was  made  governor  of  the  province  of 
Bithynia ;  and  the  following  extracts  are  from  Pliny's  corre- 
spondence with  the  emperor  :  — 

"  The  Prusenses,  Sir,  having  an  ancient  bath,  which  lies  in  a 
ruinous  state,  desire  your  leave  to  repair  it ;  but,  upon  exami- 
nation, I  am  of  opinion  it  ought  to  be  rebuilt." 


STUDY   ON   THE   PAGAN   EMPIRE.  217 

Trajan  to  Pliny. 

"  If  the  erecting  a  public  bath  will  not  be  too  great  a  charge 
upon  the  Prusenses,  we  may  comply  with  their  request." 

Pliny  to  Trajan. 

"  Having  been  petitioned  by  some  persons  to  grant  them  the 
liberty  ...  of  removing  the  relics  of  their  deceased  relations, 
upon  the  suggestion  that  either  their  monuments  we're  decayed 
by  age,  or  ruined  by  the  inundations  of  the  river,  ...  I  thought 
proper,  Sir,  ...  to  consult  you." 

Trajan  to  Pliny. 

"  It  will  be  a  hardship  upon  the  provincials  to  oblige  them  to 
address  themselves  to  '  Rome,'  whenever  they  may  have  just 
reasons  for  removing  the  ashes  of  their  ancestors.  In  this  case, 
therefore,  it  will  be  better  you  should  .  .  .  grant  or  deny  them 
this  liberty  as  you  shall  see  reasonable." 

While  governor,  certain  persons  were  brought  to  trial  before 
him  on  the  charge  of  being  Christians,  of  whom  he  writes  as 
follows:  "They  repeated  after  me  an  invocation  to  the  gods, 
and  offered  religious  rites  with  wine  and  incense  before  your 
statue  .  .  .  and  even  reviled  the  name  of  Christ ;  whereas  there 
is  no  forcing,  it  is  said,  those  who  are  really  Christians  into 
any  of  these  compliances ;  I  thought  it  proper,  therefore,  to 
discharge  them." 

"  .  .  .It  appears  to  be  a  matter  highly  deserving  your  con- 
sideration, more  especially  as  great  numbers  must  be  involved 
in  the  danger  of  these  prosecutions,  which  have  already  ex- 
tended, and  are  still  likely  to  extend,  to  persons  of  all  ranks 
and  ages,  and  even  of  both  sexes.  /In  fact^tbis  contagious 
superstition  is  not  confined  to  the  cities  only,  but  has  spread  its 
infection  among  the  neighboring  villages  n  ndcovmlry . >L-/ 

e.    From  the  Meditations  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 

"...  Suppose  that  men  kill  thee,  curse  thee.  ...  If  a  man 
should  stand  b}*  a  pure  spring  and  curse  it,  the  spring  never 
ceases  sending  up  wholesome  water ;  and  if  he  should  cast  clay 


218  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

into  it,  or  filth,  it  will  speedily  disperse  them,  and  wash  them 
out,  and  will  not  be  at  all  polluted.  .  .  .  AVhat,  then,  is  that 
about  which  we  ought  to  employ  our  serious  pains  ?  This  one 
thing :  just  thoughts  and  social  acts  ;  and  words  which  never 
lie  ;  and  a  temper  which  accepts  gladly  all  that  happens.  .  .  . 
Everything  harmonizes  with  me  which  is  harmonious  to  thee, 
O  Universe.  Nothing  is  too  early  nor  too  late  for  me,  which 
is  in  due  time  for  thee.  Everything  is  fruit  to  me,  which  thy 
seasons  bring,  O  Nature  ;  from  thee  are  all  things ;  in  thee  are 
all  things  ;  to  thee  all  things  return.  .  .  ." 

STUDY  ON  4. 

Be  ready  to  prove  by  quotations  your  answers  to  the  following  ques- 
tions:—  In  what  way  were  the  emperors  regarded?  What  was  con- 
sidered the  glory  and  value  of  the  empire?  Of  the  Romans? — Why 
did  Tiberius  speak  of  "  uncertain  seas  and  tempests  "  as  a  source  of 
danger  to  Rome  ?  Some  one  has  said,  "  I  hold  all  Rome  guilty  of  this 
Nero  " ;  explain  it.  What  qualities  displayed  by  the  Romans  — 
citizens,  senators  and  soldiers — in  the  elevation  of  Otho?  What 
class  ruled  the  empire?  What  relation  between  the  education  and  the 
life  of  Romans  ?  How  was  labor  regarded  ?  What  reason  was  there 
for  this  in  the  constitution  of  society?  What  proof  in  Pliny's  letters 
of  the  great  centralization  of  power  in  the  imperial  hands  ?  How  did 
the  imperial  compare  with  the  republican  regard  for  the  provinces  ? 
What  reason  for  this  difference  ?  What  testimony  in  these  letters  as 
to  the  spread  of  Christianity  ?  The  character  of  Christians  ?  What 
resemblances  between  the  reflections  given  from  Marcus  Aurelius  and 
Christian  teaching  ?  • 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  good  things  about  the  Roman  Empire.  Make 
a  list  of  all  the  evils  that  you  have  found  in  it.  What  ideals  exist  in 
the  Pagan  Empire? 

/.    From  the  Reported  Words  of  Christ. 

"But  I  say  unto  you,  love  your  enemies,  bless  them  that 
curse  you,  do  good  to  them  that  hate  you,  and  pray  for  them 
which  despitefull}-  use  you,  and  persecute  you  ;  that  ye  may  be 
the  children  of  your  Father  which  is  in  heaven :  for  he  maketh 
his  sun  to  rise  on  the  evil  and  on  the  good,  and  sendeth  rain  on 
the  just  and  on  the  unjust." 


STUDY    ON   THE   PAGAN    EMPIRE.  219 


"Take  no  thought,  saying,  What  shall  we  eat?  or,  what 
shall  we  drink?  or,  wherewithal  shall  we  be  clothed?  .  .  .  But 
seek  ye  first  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  his  righteousness,  and  all 
these  things  shall  be  added  unto  you.  .  .  .  Come  unto  me,  all 
ye  that  labor  and  are  heavy  laden,  and  I  will  give  you  rest. 
Take  my  yoke  upon  you,  and  learn  of  me  :  for  I  am  meek  and 
lowly  in  heart ;  and  ye  shall  find  rest  unto  your  souls.  For  my 
yoke  is  easy,  and  my  burden  is  light." 

******* 

"Then  said  Jesus  unto  his  disciples,  If  any  man  will  come 
after  me,  let  him  deny  himself,  and  take  up  his  cross,  and 
follow  me.  For  what  is  a  man  profited,  if  he  gain  the  whole 
world,  and  lose  his  own  soul?  .  .  .  Suffer  little  children,  and 
forbid  them  not,  to  come  unto  me  ;  for  of  such  is  the  kingdom 
of  heaven.  .  .  .  But  be  not  ye  called  Rabbi :  for  one  is  your 
Master,  even  Christ ;  and  all  ye  are  brethren.  And  call  no 
man  your  father  upon  the  earth :  for  one  is  your  Father  which 
is  in  heaven.  Neither  be  ye  called  masters  :  for  one  is  your 
Master,  even  Christ." 

*  *  *  *  *    *        *  * 

"Woe  unto  vou,  scribes  and  Pharisees,  hypocrites!  for  ye 
pay  tithe  of  mint,  and  anise,  and  cumin,  and  have  omitted  the 
weightier  matters  of  the  law,  judgment,  mercy,  and  faith  :  these 
ought  ye  to  have  done,  and  not  to  leave  the  other  undone.  .  .  , 
Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,  and  with 
all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  strength,  and  with  all  thy  mind ; 
and  thy  neighbor  as  thyself.  .  .  .  When  thou  makest  a  feast, 
call  the  poor,  the  maimed,  the  lame,  the  blind ;  and  thou  shalt 

be  blessed." 

******* 

"  God  is  a  spirit:  and  they  that  worship  him,  must  worship 
him  in  spirit  and  in  truth." 

g.   From,  the  Epistles  of  the  Early  Christians. 

"To  us  there  is  but  one  God,  the  Father,  of  whom  are  all 
things,  and  we  in  him.  .  .  .  There  is  neither  Jew  nor  Greek, 


220  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

there  is  neither  bond  nor  free,  there  is  neither  male  uor  female  ; 
for  ye  are  all  one  in  Christ  Jesus.  .  .  .  We  beseech  you,  breth- 
ren. .  .  .  that  ye  study  to  be  quiet,  and  to  do  your  own  business, 
and  to  work  with  your  hands,  as  we  commanded  you ;  that  ye 
may  walk  honestly.  .  .  .  This  we  commanded  you,  that  if  any 
would  not  work,  neither  should  he  eat.  ...  In  like  manner 
also,  that  women  adorn  themselves  in  modest  apparel,  with 
shame-facedness  and  sobriety  ;  not  with  broidered  hair,  or  gold, 
or  pearls,  or  costly  array.  .  .  .  They  that  will  be  rich,  fall  into 
temptation  .  .  .  for  the  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil : 
charge  them  that  are  rich  in  this  world  .  .  .  that  they  do  good, 
that  they  be  rich  in  good  works,  ready  to  distribute." 

******* 

' '  But  speak  thou  the  things  which  become  sound  doctrine  : 
that  the  aged  men  be  sober,  grave,  temperate,  sound  in  faith, 
in  charity,  in  patience ;  the  aged  women  likewise,  that  they  be 
in  behaviour  as  becometh  holiness ;  not  false  accusers,  not 
given  to  much  wine,  teachers  of  good  things ;  that  they  may 
teach  the  young  women  to  be  sober,  to  love  their  husbands,  to 
love  their  children  ;  to  be  discreet,  chaste,  keepers  at  home  .  .  . 
that  the  word  of  God  be  not  blasphemed.  Young  men  likewise 
exhort  to  be  sober-minded,  in  all  things  shewing  thyself  a 
pattern  of  good  works.  .  .  .  Exhort  servants  to  be  obedient 
unto  their  own  masters,  and  to  please  them  well  in  all  things  ; 
not  answering  again ;  not  purloining,  but  shewing  all  good 
fidelity  ;  that  they  may  adorn  the  doctrine  of  God,  our  Saviour, 
in  all  things.  .  .  .  Put  them  in  mind  to  be  subject  to  princi- 
palities and  powers,  to  obey  magistrates,  to  be  ready  to  every 
good  work." 

Note  on  Heresies. — From  Phrygia,  in  the  second  century,  came 
the  doctrine  of  Montanus,  who  thought  himself  the  dwelling  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  who  taught  that  the  end  of  the  world  was  near,  and 
that  bodily  suffering  would  purify  the  soul  [asceticism] .  In  Alexan- 
dria and  Egypt  were  many  Gnostics  who  denied  the  humanity  of 
Christ.  In  the  third  century  some  denied  his  divinity.  Then,  too, 
came  the  Manichceans  from  Persia,  teaching  the  existence  of  two  gods, 
one  good,  one  evil.  They  condemned  marriage,  and  considered  that 


STUDY   ON   THE   PAGAN   EMPIRE.  221 

the  body  was  so  evil  that  to  continue  the  human  species  was  but  to 
prolong  the  reign  of  evil.  There  was  much  discussion  in  this  century 
about  baptism,  about  the  marriage  of  the  clergy,  their  duties  and 
accountability.  Just  at  the  close  of  the  period  arose  the  famous  Arian 
controversy  between  Arius,  deacon  of  Alexandria,  who  maintained 
that  Christ  was  like  God  and  had  been  created  by  him,  and  Atha- 
nasius,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  who  taught  that  Christ  was  himself  very 
God. 

STUDY  ON  /,  g,  AND   NOTE. 

What  in  Roman  life  was  attacked  by  the  Christian  teachings? 
What  in  Roman  ideas?  What  in  organization?  What  virtues  did 
they  insist  upon?  Why  was  Christianity  dangerous  to  Rome?  In 
what  part  of  the  empire  did  all  the  heresies  arise  ?  Why  in  that  part 
rather  than  another?  AVhat  sort  of  activity  do  they  indicate  in  the 
early  church  ?  What  danger  did  they  threaten  her  with  ?  What  was 
the  bond  of  union  among  Christians  ?  What  previous  bonds  of  union 
did  the  Christians  abolish  or  ignore  by  their  teachings?  What  was 
their  ideal  ? 

GENERAL  QUESTIONS  ON   ROMAN  HISTORY. 

Of  what  value  was  the  Roman  dominion  to  the  countries  governed  ? 
What  real  differences  existed  between  the  divisions  of  the  empire 
made  by  Diocletian?  To  what  old  empire  did  the  eastern  division 
roughly  correspond?  Of  what  advantage  was  the  empire  to  the  spread 
of  Christianity  ?  What  is  the  application  of  the  motto  prefixed  to  the 
studies  in  Roman  history  ?  To  what  part  of  the  history  does  it  most 
thoroughly  apply  ?  What  countries  could  Rome  make  after  her  own 
pattern,  Roman  ?  What  countries  were  uninfluenced,  though  con- 
quered by  her?  What  proof  can  you  give  of  this?  What  seems  to 
you  the  best  period  of  Roman  history  ?  What  its  worst  ?  What  was 
the  most  characteristic  period?  What  was  the  genius  of  Rome?  How 
shown?  When  and  how  did  this  genius  first  appear?  When  and  how 
did  her  faults  first  appear  ? 


222  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTOKY. 

THE  TEUTONIC  BARBARIANS  BEFORE  476. 

"  We  hewed  with  our  swords."  —  LODBROKAR. 

Original  and  contemporary  authorities :  Tacitus,  Caesar, 
Jornandes,  and  Ammianus;  Teutonic  songs  and  legends 
embodied  in  later  forms,  notably,  the  Eddas,  the  Saga  of  the 
Burnt  Njal,  the  Nibelungen  Lied,  Beowulf;  actual  village- 
communities,  like  those  of  Russia  and  the  East,  and  traces 
of  these  all  through  modern  Europe  throw  much  side-light 
on  this  history. 

Modern  authorities  in  English:  Stubbs'  Constitutional 
History  of  England,  true  for  all  the  West ;  Grant  Allen!s 
Early  Britain,  and  Green's  History  of  the  English  People. 


1.  Note  on  Teutonic  Land-Tenure.  —  The  German  territory 
belonging  to  any  tribe  was  divided  into  cantons ;  in  each  canton  was 
a  certain  number  of  marks  ;  a  mark  was  a  district  of  country  held  by 
"kindred  freemen,"  who  grouped  their  dwellings  in  a  village  sur- 
rounded by  wood  and  waste  land.  Within  the  village,  each  man 
owned  his  own  homestead  and  a  bit  of  vacant  land  around  it.  Once 
a  year  the  land  to  be  cultivated  was  divided  among  the  villagers  by 
common  consent  in  a  general  meeting  of  the  mark-men  ["Mark- 
moot  "]  or  by  the  decision  of  a  chief  or  magistrate.  Each  householder 
raised  from  the  lot  assigned  him  the  crops  decided  upon  by  the  com- 
munity. One  man  had  as  good  a  right  as  another  to  cut  wood  and  let 
his  pigs  run  in  the  forest,  or  send  his  cattle  into  the  meadow-lands. 
The  Mark -moot  also  decided  if  a  new  man  might  come  among  them  to 
own  land,  or  if  an  old  settler  might  build  apart  from  the  village,  and 
in  general,  on  purely  local  affairs.  Within  the  family  the  rule  was 
patriarchal. 

2.  Extracts  from  the  it  Germany"  of  Tacitus. 

"  The  people  of  Germany  appear  to  me  indigenous,  and  free 
from  intermixture  with  foreigners.  ...  In  their  ancient  songs, 
which  are  the  only  records  or  annals,  they  celebrate  the  god 


STUDY   ON    THE   TEUTONIC   BARBARIANS.  223 

Tuisto,  sprung  from  the  earth,  and  his  son  Mannus,  as  the 
fathers  and  founders  of  their  race.  ...  A  peculiar  kind  of 
verses  is  also  current  among  them,  by  the  recital  of  which, 
termed  '  barding,'  the}-  stimulate  their  courage.  .  .  .  The  land 
...  is  productive  of  grain,  but  unkindly  to  fruit-trees.  It 
abounds  in  flocks  and  herds,  .  .  .  [which]  form  the  most 
esteemed,  and,  indeed,  the  only  species  of  wealth.  .  .  .  The 
greatest  disgrace  that  can  befall  them  is  to  have  abandoned 
their  shields.  A  person  branded  with  this  ignominy  is  not 
permitted  to  join  in  their  religious  rites  or  enter  their  assem- 
blies. ...  In  the  election  of  kings,  they  have  regard  to  birth ; 
in  that  of  generals,  to  valor.  Their  kings  have  not  an  absolute 
or  unlimited  power ;  and  their  generals  command  less  through 
the  force  of  authority  than  of  example.  If  they  are  daring, 
adventurous,  and  conspicuous  in  action,  they  procure  obedience 
from  the  admiration  they  inspire.  None,  however,  but  the 
priests  are  permitted  to  judge  offenders  ...  so  that  the  chas- 
tisement appears  .  .  .  the  instigation  of  the  god  whom  they 
suppose  present  with  warriors.  They  also  carry  with  them  to 
battle  certain  images  and  standards  taken  from  the*  sacred 
groves.  It  is  a  principal  incentive  to  their  courage,  that  their 
squadrons  and  battalions  are  .  .  .  formed  ...  by  the  assemblage 
of  families  and  clans.  ...  To  their  mothers  and  their  wives, 
they  bring  their  wounds  for  relief,  nor  do  these  dread  to  count 
or  to  search  out  the  gashes.  The  women  also  administer  food 
and  encouragement  to  those  who  are  fighting." 

******* 
"  When  the  affairs  of  the  state  are  of  lesser  importance,  the 
chiefs  decide ;  when  of  greater,  the  whole  community  of  can- 
tons ;  but  whatever  is  referred  to,  the  decision  of  the  people  is 
first  maturely  discussed  by  the  chiefs.  ...  In  assemblv,  all  sit 
in  arms.  Silence  is  proclaimed  by  the  priests.  .  .  .  The  king 
or  chief  and  such  others  as  are  renowned  for  age,  for  glory  in 
arms,  or  eloquence,  are  heard,  and  gain  attention  rather  by  their 
ability  to  persuade  than  their  authority  to  command.  ...  If  a 
proposal  displease,  the  assembly  reject  it  by  an  inarticulate 


224  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

murmur ;  if  it  prove  agreeable,  they  clash  their  javelins ;  for 
the  most  honorable  expression  of  assent  among  them  is  the 
sound  of  arms.  Before  this  council  it  is  ...  allowed  to  exhibit 
accusations  and  to  prosecute  capital  offenses.  Punishments  are 
varied  according  to  the  nature  of  the  crime.  .  .  „  In  the  same 
assemblies  chief  s  are  also  elected  to  administer  justice  through  the 
cantons  and  districts.  .  .  .  The  Germans  transact  no  business, 
public  or  private,  without  being  armed  ;  but  it  is  not  customary 
for  any  person  to  assume  arms  till  the  state  has  approved  his 
ability  to  use  them.  Then,  in  the  midst  of  the  assembly,  either 
one  of  the  chiefs,  or  the  father  .  .  .  equips  the  youth  with  a  shield 
and  javelin.  .  .  .  Before  this  .  .  .  [he]  is  considered  as  part  of 
the  household ;  afterwards,  of  the  state.  .  .  . 

"  He  who  would  gain  dignity  and  rank  among  the  chieftains 
must  have  many  and  brave  companions  j1  .  .  .  and  among  these, 
each  wishes  to  stand  highest  in  the  regard  of  his  chief.  .  .  . 
The  companion  requires  from  the  liberality  of  his  chief  the 
war-like  steed,  the  bloody  and  conquering  spear ;  and  in  place 
of  pay,  food,  homely  but  plentiful.  The  funds  for  these  gifts 
must  be*found  in  war  and  rapine.  ...  It  is  customary  for  the 
several  states  to  present,  by  voluntary  and  individual  contribu- 
tions, cattle  or  grain  to  their  chiefs 

"  Almost  singly  among  the  barbarians,  they  content  them- 
selves with  one  wife,  whose  bridal  gifts  are  oxen,  a  caparisoned 
steed,  a  shield,  spear,  and  sword.  By  virtue  of  these  the  wife 
is  espoused ;  and  she  in  her  turn  makes  a  present  of  some  arms 
to  her  husband  .  .  .  The  woman  ...  is  admonished  by  the 
very  ceremonial  of  her  marriage,  that  she  comes  to  her  hus- 
band as  a  partner  in  toils  and  dangers ;  to  suffer  and  to  dare 
equally  with  him,  in  peace  and  in  war  ;  this  is  indicated  by  the 
yoked  oxen,  the  harnessed  steed,  the  offered  arms.  .  .  . 

"  It  is  an  indispensable  duty  to  adopt  the  enmities  of  a  father 

1  Caesar  says,  "  Whenever  any  of  their  chiefs  has  said  in  an  assembly 
that  he  will  be  a  leader  in  some  undertaking,  they  who  approve  of  the 
man  and  the  enterprise  arise,  and  promise  him  their  aid."  These  are 
called  companions. 


STUDY   ON   THE   TEUTONIC   BARBARIANS.  225 

or  relation,  as  well  as  their  friendships  :  these,  however,  are 
not  irreconcilable  or  perpetual.  Even  homicide  is  atoned  by 
a  certain  fine  in  cattle  and  sheep  ;  and  the  whole  family  accepts 
the  satisfaction.  .  .  .  Every  one,  according  to  his  ability,  feasts 
his  guest ;  when  his  provisions  are  exhausted,  he  who  was  late 
the  host  is  now  the  guide  and  companion  to  another  hospitable 
board.  They  enter  the  next  house  uninvited,  and  are  received 
with  equal  cordiality.  .  .  .  Their  drink  is  a  liquor  prepared  from 
barley  or  wheat  brought  by  fermentation  to  a  certain  resem- 
blance of  wine.  .  .  .  Their  food  is  simple  :  wild  fruits,  fresh 
venison,  or  coagulated  milk.  Of  their  slaves,  each  is  the 
master  of  a  habitation  and  household  of  his  own.  The  lord 
requires  from  him  a  certain  quantity  of  grain,  cattle,  or  cloth, 
as  from  a  tenant ;  and  so  far  only  the  subjection  of  the  slave 
extends.  His  domestic  offices  are  performed  by  his  own  wife 
and  children." 

STUDY  ON   I  AND  2. 

What  is  the  political  unit  here  ?  What  are  its  bonds  of  union  ? 
How  is  property  held  ?  How  is  it  ruled  ?  What  is  meant  by  a  patri- 
archal family  ? 

What  sort  of  literature  exists  among  the  Teutons  ?  What  makes 
a  man  a  Teuton?  What  bond  of  union,  then,  among  them?  What 
does  Tacitus  think  of  the  reality  of  this  bond  ?  What  proof  does  he 
give  of  its  existence  ?  What  are  their  occupations  ?  What  is  their 
ideal?  In  how  many  ways  and  how  is  this  shown?  Make  a  list  of 
their  magistrates.  What  is  done  by  each  ?  How  do  their  magistrates 
obtain  power?  Who  gives  them  power?  What  assemblies  have  they? 
What  is  done  by  each  ?  Compare  with  Homeric  Greece  and  Regal 
Rome.  What  name  will  you  give  to  this  sort  of  political  organization? 
What  adjective  describes  the  political  position  of  the  individual? 
What  is  the  position  of  women  among  them  ?  What  sort  of  women 
are  evidently  found  among  the  Teutons  ?  How  is  the  king  or  ruler 
supported  ?  When  and  how  is  a  man  recognized  as  a  full-grown 
Teuton  ?  What  organization  is  there  among  the  Teutons  which  we 
have  not  met  before?  What  is  the  bond  which  holds  it  together? 
How  is  it  supported  ?  What  characterizes  their  mode  of  living  when 
at  home?  What  new  units  and  new  bonds  of  union  have  you  dis- 
covered among  the  Germans  ?  What  old  ones  ? 


226  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

3.  Extracts  and  Stories  from  Teutonic  Sources. 

From  the  Edda  of  Scemund. 

"  It  was  God  himself  who  made  three  castes  of  men  eter- 
nally unequal ;  he  has  created  first  the  serf,  with  a  dark  skin, 
hard  hands,  and  a  bent  back ;  his  task  is  to  till  the  land,  dig 
the  peat,  watch  the  goats  and  pigs.  Then  he  made  the  man  of 
bright  eyes  and  ruddy  skin,  who  knows  how  to  tame  cattle,  to 
make  the  plow,  to  build  houses  and  barns.  And  last  of  all,  God 
made  the  noble,  with  yellow  hair,  and  bright  cheeks,  and  a 
glance  as  piercing  as  that  of  a  dragon  ;  it  is  he  who  can  shake 
the  lance,  and  draw  the  bow  and  fight  valiantly." 

From  the  "  Burnt  Njal." 

In  this  saga  we  are  told  of  the  old  man  Njal,  whose  sons 
have  been  slain,  and  whose  house  is  burning  over  his  head. 
When  entreated  to  save  himself,  he  replies :  "  I  am  an  old  man, 
little  fitted  to  avenge  my  murdered  sons,  so  I  will  not  go  out 
to  live  in  shame." 

The  same  saga  tells  us  of  Illugi,  the  brother  of  a  great  out- 
law who  had  been  killed.  When  Illugi,  however,  falls  into  the 
hands  of  the  men  who  had  slain  his  brother,  he  chooses  to  die 
rather  than  promise  not  to  take  vengeance  on  them. 

In  the  same  story,  one  man  will  not  let  his  own  father  give 
land,  but  prefers  to  go  to  another  part  of  country  and  seize  it 
for  himself ;  while  another  chooses  to  get  land  by  turning  out 
an  earlier  settler  to  taking  it  as  a  gift  from  his  brother ;  and 
the  woman  Steinura  will  buy  a  farm  rather  than  accept  it  from 
her  kinsmen. 

The  Lay  of  Sigfurde  says:  "  Never  trust  the  promises  thy 
foe's  kinsman  makes  thee."  Says  the  Elder  Edda:  "Let  no 
man  go  a  step  without  his  arms,  for  it  is  hard  to  know  when 
a  man  may  need  a  weapon."  "  At  home  every  one  is  his  own 
master."  "  One's  own  home  is  best,  small  though  it  be." 

STUDY  ON  3. 

What  classes  of  men  existed  among  the  Teutons,  and  how  is  each 
regarded?  How  do  they  regard  this  division  into  classes?  What  is 


STUDY   ON   THE   TEUTONIC   BARBARIANS.  227 

the  occupation  of  each  ?  How  would  manual  labor  be  regarded  among 
them?  What  is  then  ideal?  If  any  one  is  wronged,  who  is  responsi- 
ble for  righting  that  wrong  ?  In  this  case  what  appears  as  the  unit, 
and  what  bond  makes  of  it  a  unit?  What  is  the  state  of  security 
among  the  Teutons  ?  How  do  you  know  ?  What  reason  for  this 
condition  of  affairs?  What  qualities  of  character  appear  in  these 
extracts  ? 

Note  on  Vocabulary.  —  In  general,  we  find  the  same  roots  used  in 
the  Latin,  Greek,  Keltic,  Slavic,1  and  Teutonic  tongues  for  the  follow- 
ing words  :  —  (1)  Father,  mother,  brother,  sister,  daughter,  father-  and 
mother-in-law,  daughter-  and  son-,  brother-  and  sister-in-law ;  (2)  ox, 
cow,  sheep,  horse,  hog,  donkey,  goose,  mouse,  and  fly ;  (3)  plow,  yoke, 
grind,  weave,  sing,  milk,  sow,  and  reap ;  (4)  house,  field,  clothes,  wool, 
hides,  cart,  axe,  knife,  oar,  rudder,  boat,  hammer.  These  are  but  a 
few  out  of  the  many  examples  that  might  be  given  of  the  similarity 
of  words  in  these  languages.  Among  all  these  people  the  children 
are  told  the  story  of  "  Cinderella "  and  of  "  Prince  Hatt  under  the 
Earth,"  and  stories  of  invisible  caps  and  rings  and  of  brave  dragon- 
killers. 

GENERAL   STUDY. 

What  have  we  found  in  common  between  the  Greeks,  Romans, 
and  Teutons?  It  is  generally  held  that  these  common  possessions 
indicate  a  common  origin  for  all  these  peoples  ;  what  must  have  been 
true  in  general  of  the  time  of  that  origin  compared  with  the  opening 
of  European  history  at  1000  B.C.?  If  all  these  people,  Kelts,2  Teutons, 
Slavs,  Greeks,  and  Romans  came  from  Asia,  which  entered  Europe 
first,  judging  by  geographical  distribution  ?  [See  map,  pp.  252,  253.] 
Why  do  you  think  so?  Which  last?  How  did  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  happen  to  be  most  quickly  civilized  ?  Look  over  the  above 
list  of  words  and  determine  what  occupations  the  Aryans3  must  have 
known  before  they  separated.  By  what  occupations  must  they  have 
been  supported?  What  do  you  think  they  ate  and  wore  at  that 
time?  How  did  they  amuse  themselves? 

1  The  Caucasians  of  Eastern  Europe  are  mostly  Slavs;  the  purest  Slavic 
blood  is  found  in  Russia. 

2  The  purest  Kelts  of  Europe  are  the  Irish,  Welsh,  and  Scotch. 

3  Aryan  is  the  general  name  given  to  Greek,  Roman,  Keltic,  Teutonic. 

and  Slavic  stocks. 


228  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


C.     II.     THE    CHRISTIAN    EMPIRE.  —  CONSTAN- 
TINE   TO   CHARLEMAGNE. 

A.  Under  Roman  control.     323-476  A.D. 

B.  The  West  under  Barbarian  Control,  476-800. 

C.  Empire  of  Charlemagne,  800-814  A.D. 

"And,  behold,  the  Lord  passed  by,  and  a  great  and  strong  wind  rent  the 
mountains,  and  brake  in  pieces  the  rocks  before  the  Lord ;  but  the  Lord 
was  not  in  the  wind  :  and  after  the  wind  an  earthquake ;  but  the  Lord  was 
not  in  the  earthquake  :  and  after  the  earthquake  a  fire ;  but  the  Lord 
was  not  in  the  fire  :  and  after  the  fire  a  still  small  voice."  —  I  Kings. 
xix.  11,  12. 


Chief  original  and  contemporary  sources,  323-476  : 
Ammianus,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Jerome,  and  St.  Ambrose, 
Claudian,  Salvian,  Zosimus,  the  Theodosian  Code,  the 
Canon-law. 

476-814.  For  the  Empire,  the  Justinian  Code  and  Pro- 
copius  ;  for  Italy,  Cassiodorus  ;  for  the  Goths,  Jornandes  ; 
for  France,  Gregory  of  Tours,  Eginhard,  and  the  Capi- 
tularies l  of  Charlemagne  ;  for  England,  Gildas,  Bede,  and 
the  contemporary  laws;  for  the  Church,  all  the  above 
sources,  and  canons  of  the  Councils ;  for  Islam,  the 
Koran. 

Chief  modern  authorities  accessible  in  English  :  for  the 
Church  and  the  Empire,  Gibbon,  Milman,  Fin  lay,  and 
Bryce ;  for  France,  Guizot  ;  for  England,  Stubbs  and 
Green  ;  for  Islam,  Gibbon,  Muir,  Ockley,  Freeman. 

1  Capitularies  (little  headings),  summaries  of  law  and  custom. 


THE   CHRISTIAN    EMPIRE.  229 

II.  A.  THE  OHKISTIAN   EMPIEE  UNDEE  ROMAN  CONTROL, 
323-476. 

1.  Facts  of  Imperial  Organization. 

a.  List  of  Chief  Officials  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  Fifth 
Century.  (Guizot.) 

First  Chamberlain,  the  chief  of  those  who  served  the 
emperor  in  his  apartments ;  Count  of  the  Palace,  the  chief 
of  those  who  served  him  at  table ;  Count  of  the  Sacred 
Wardrobe,  the  chief  of  those  who  cared  for  the  imperial 
wardrobe  ;  three  Secretaries  of  the  Chamber,  private  sec- 
retaries of  the  emperor,  who  transacted  much  public  busi- 
ness for  him ;  three  Gruardians  of  Silence,  whose  business 
it  was  to  keep  the  palace  of  the  emperor  quiet ;  Steward 
of  the  Cappadocian  Estates ;  Counts  of  the  Cavalry  and 
Infantry  of  the  Palace,  two  select  bands  of  soldiery  for 
guarding  the  imperial  person. 

Each  of  these  officers  had  under  him  many  subordinates 
and  this  whole  body  constituted  the  IMPERIAL  COURT; 
each  emperor  and  empress  and  each  Caesar  had  a  similar 
court  chosen  by  himself  or  herself. 

Master  of  the  Offices,  administered  justice  to  the  people 
of  the  palace  ;  received  appeals  of  private  citizens  and  the 
petitions  of  cities  ;  had  charge  of  the  imperial  messengers 
and  spies  throughout  the  provinces,  and  the  armorers  of 
the  empire.  Quaestor,  judged  affairs  referred  to  the  prince; 
composed  the  laws  and  edicts  of  the  emperor,  kept  a 
register  of  military  officials.  Count  of  the  Sacred  Largesses, 
treasurer  of  the  empire,  receiving  and  disbursing  its 
funds.  Crown  Treasurer,  who  managed  the  revenues  more 
particularly  belonging  to  the  emperor,  such  as  gifts  and 
bequests.  Secretary  of  State,  kept  the  register  of  public 
officials,  with  their  duties  and  salaries. 

Each  of  these  officers  had  under  him  a  great  number  of 


230  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

officials  who  managed  the  affairs  of  his  department  in  all 
parts  of  the  empire ;  it  must  also  be  remembered  that  each 
emperor  had  these  officers  under  him.  Under  Constantino 
nearly  600  permanent  garrisons  were  kept  up,  consisting  of 
more  than  600,000  men;  the  imperial  body-guard  alone 
consisted  of  3500. 

b.  The  Classes  of  the  Empire  (fifth  century). 

The  privileged  classes,  including  senators  arid  high  im- 
perial officials ;  officers  of  the  palace ;  all  the  clergy ;  all 
the  soldiers. 

The  Curials,  including  all  citizens  possessing  a  certain 
amount  of  landed  property. 

The  common  people,  including  the  mass,  having  little  or 
no  landed  property  to  speak  of. 

The  privilege  of  the  first  class  was  exemption  from 
municipal  functions  and  offices ;  this  exemption  was 
hereditary. 

The  Curials  (Decurions)  were  so  by  hereditary  right  or 
by  acquirement  of  property ;  they  could  not  change  their 
status  by  a  voluntary  act.  Their  duties  were,  (1)  the  ad- 
ministration of  municipal  affairs;  (2)  the  collection  and 
payment  of  imperial  taxes.  They  could  enter  neither  the 
army  nor  the  Church  until  they  had  passed  through  the 
highest  municipal  offices.  They  could  neither  sell  their 
property  nor  leave  their  provinces  without  permission  from 
the  governor  or  judge  of  the  province. 

c.  The  Church. 

Every  little  parish  with  the  surrounding  country  was 
under  a  priest,  appointed  by  the  bishop ;  the  union  of  these 
parishes  formed  the  bishop's  diocese,  with  a  city  for  its 
centre.  The  bishop  was  generally  elected  by  the  clergy 
and  the  people,  and  confirmed  by  the  civil  authority ;  he 


THE   CHRISTIAN   EMPIKE.  231 

was  generally  the  Defensor  of  his  city,  that  is,  the  man 
through  whom  appeals  for  justice  passed  to  the  emperor ; 
often,  too,  he  was  an  imperial  judge.  He  ruled  in  accord- 
ance with  the  custom  of  Rome  and  with  the  decrees  of 
Church  councils,  convened  from  time  to  time  at  various 
places,  and  consisting  almost  entirely  of  bishops.  "  Let 
the  domains,  estates,  vineyards,  slaves,  and  chattels,  .  .  . 
which  are  given  to  parishes,"  says  the  council  of  Orleans, 
"  remain  in  the  power  of  the  bishop." 

STUDY  ON   I. 

For  whose  benefit  is  the  imperial  government  primarily  organized? 
Compare  with  republican  Rome  or  with  Age  of  Pericles.  In  what 
countries  have  we  before  found  such  governments?  What  name  will 
you  give  to  such  a  government  ?  What  is  true  of  its  cost  ?  What 
makes  its  cost?  How  far  is  this  cost  unjustifiable  ?  On  which  class 
of  the  people  does  the  burden  of  its  support  come  ?  Who  manages 
the  imperial  business?  On  what  does  its  good  or  bad  government 
depend  ?  What  classes  will  like  and  uphold  it  ?  Of  what  value  to 
the  government  is  each  of  these  classes?  Where  and  in  whom  is  power 
centered?  In  its  form,  what  is  the  organization  of  the  Church  ?  Who 
hold  its  temporal  power,  and  in  what  forms  ? 

2.  List  of  Important  Events  and  Changes,  323-476  A.D. 

CONSTANTINE,    first    Christian    emperor 

By  his  edicts  every  man  is  allowed  to  follow 
the  religion  he  prefers.  The  property  and  civil 
rights  of  Christians  are  restored,  while  in  the  imperial 
service  Christians  are  preferred  to  pagans.  Byzantium  is 
rebuilt,  enlarged,  encircled  with  walls,  enriched  with 
baths,  palaces,  and  churches,  and  made  the  capital  of  the 
empire,  under  the  name  of  Constantinople  or  New  Rome. 
The  Senate  is  no  longer  consulted  by  the  emperors  in 
regard  to  their  colleagues,  and  barbarians1  are  enrolled  in 

1  Barbarians,  in  the  Roman  sense,  are  the  uncivilized  Europeans,  mostly 
Teutonic,  who  dwell  beyond  the  Rhine. 


232  STUDIES    IK    GENERAL   HISTOllY. 

the  imperial  body-guard.  In  325  the  Arian  controversy 
(see  p.  221)  culminates  in  the  COUNCIL  OF  NiCE,1  an 
assembly  of  bishops  called  together  by  Constantino  to 
decide  upon  the  points  of  the  orthodox  creed.  This  coun- 
cil condemns  Arius  as  a  heretic ;  and  the  emperor  declares 
that  those  who  resist  its  decisions  shall  be  exiled.  The 
Nicene  Creed  becomes,  henceforth,  the  standard  of  faith 
throughout  the  empire.  A  long  ecclesiastical  quarrel  in 
Africa  is  settled  by  imperial  authority,  in  a  synod  of 
Italian  prelates,  the  bishop  of  Rome  presiding. 

Meanwhile,  war  goes  on  with  the  Persians  and  with 
various  Teutonic  tribes. 

Emperors:  .  .  .  Julian  .  .  .  THEODOSIUS.  .  .  . 
Famous  bishops:  .  .  .  St.  Ambrose  of  Milan.  .  .  . 
Civil  wars  between  imperial  candidates ;  frontier 
wars  with  Persians  and  Goths.  Julian  attempts  to  revive 
paganism.  The  Huns2  come  from  the  East  and  attack 
the  Goths.  The  Christianized  (Arian)  half  of  these  ask 
the  shelter  of  the  empire ;  large  numbers  are  thus  settled 
in  the  lands  south  of  the  Danube.  Grossly  deceived  by 
the  Romans,  they  begin  to  ravage  the  provinces,  and  a 
Gothic  war  arises,  in  the  midst  of  which  all  the  Goths  in 
the  eastern  cities  are  massacred  by  a  secret  imperial  order 
of  Theodosius,  who  brings  the  war  to  an  end,  enrolls  the 
conquered  barbarians  in  the  legions,  and  gives  them  per- 
manent settlements  in  the  provinces.  Suspicions  and 
quarrels  are  rife  between  Romans  and  Goths. 

Theodosius  suppresses  and  persecutes  paganism ;  Chris- 
tianity becomes  the  state  faith  of  the  empire;  Rome  is 
decreed  to  have  the  first,  Constantinople,  the  second, 
ecclesiastical  rank. 

After  Theodosius,  the  empire  is  divided  into  Western 

1  Nicsea,  in  BUliynia. 

2  A  people  allied  to  the  Tartars,  Finns,  and  modern  Hungarians. 


THE   CHRISTIAN   EMPIRE.  233 

and  Eastern  Empires,  Ravenna  becoming  the  capital  of  the 
West.  The  Germans,  invading  Italy,  are  repulsed  by  Stili- 
cho,  the  Vandal  general  of  the  West,  who  has  already 
saved  Italy  from  the  first  invasion  of  Alaric,  the  master- 
general  of  the  Imperial  forces  in  Illyricum,  and  king  of 
the  Visigoths,  who  comprise  his  legions. —  The  Roman 
troops  being  withdrawn  to  defend  the  continental  fron- 
tiers of  the  empire,  Britain  becomes  independent  under 
native  rulers. 

Emperors  unimportant,  ruling  in  east  and  west 
separately. 

Bishops  unimportant,  save  Leo  the  G-reat,  pope 
of  Rome,  and  St.  Chrysostom,  bishop  of  Constantinople. 

Alaric  again  invades  Italy,  complaining  of  delay  in  the 
pay  of  his  legions,  and  of  an  unprovoked  Italian  massacre 
of  Goths.  Ravaging  the  country,  he  advances  on  Rome 
and  sacks  it,  sparing,  however,  the  Christians  and  the 
Christian  churches.  After  his  death,  his  brother-in-law 
Athaulf,  chosen  king  by  the  Gothic  troops,  is  appointed 
Roman  general  over  his  own  subjects,  and  sent  with  them 
to  fight  barbarians  beyond  the  Alps;  they  defeat  the 
Vandals  in  Spain,  and  finally  settle  in  Aquitaine,  taking 
one-third  of  the  land,  as  their  own  in  return  for  their 
services.  About  the  same  time  the  emperors  grant  per- 
manent settlement  in  Gaul  to  Burgundians  and  the 
Franks.1  Throughout  the  provinces,  revolts ;  in  Africa  a 
Roman  general,  revolting,  calls  to  his  aid  Gf-enseric,  king 
of  the  Arian  Vandals,  who  crosses  into  Africa,  persecutes 
and  attacks  the  orthodox2  provincials,  and  ultimately  con- 
quers and  settles  Africa  for  himself  and  his  people. 

ATTILA,  king  of   the    Huns,  the   "  Scourge   of   God," 

1  The   name   given   to   a   confederation  (warrior   band?)    of   freemen 
(Franks)  from  various  Germanic  tribes. 
2  Those  following  the  Nicene  creed,  in  opposition  to  Arianism. 


234  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL    HISTORY. 

advancing  from  the  north,  ravages  first  the  Eastern,  then 
the  Western,  Empire ;  JEtius,  the  Scythian  master-general 
of  the  western  legions,  now  mostly  composed  of  barbari- 
ans, drives  him  from  Gaul  by  the  battle  of  CHALONS 
(Strasbourg).  He  now  enters  Italy ;  ruins  Aquileia, 
whose  fugitives  found  VENICE  ;  is  persuaded  to  leave  by 
the  entreaties  of  Pope  Leo  I.  Hungary  becomes  the  only 
permanent  European  settlement  of  the  Huns. 

Britain,  still  Roman  in  its  civilization,  is  invaded  by  the 
Anglo-Saxons  (449).  Nearly  at  the  same  time  the  Irish 
are  converted  to  Christianity  by  St.  Patrick.  In  the  east, 
important  heresies  cause  wide-spread  revolt  and  difficulty. 

The  widow  of  one  emperor,  insulted  by  his  successor, 
asks  Genseric  the  Vandal  to  avenge  her ;  hence,  Genseric 
and  his  Vandals  sail  for  Rome  and  sack  it.  At  the  interces- 
sion of  Pope  Leo,  they  forbear  to  use  torture  or  fire. 

I       The  Arian  and  barbarian  legions  of  Italy  ask 
one-third  of  the  land  of  Italy  from  the  Western 


Empire ;  refused,  they  mutiny,  and  declare  Odovaker  their 
king.  Augustulus,  emperor  of  the  West,  resigns,  and  the 
Senate  sends  an  embassy  to  Zeno,  emperor  of  the  East,  to 
say  that  they  "  disclaim  the  necessity,  or  even  the  wish,  of 
continuing  any  longer  the  imperial  succession  in  Italy ; 
since,  in  their  opinion,  the  majesty  of  a  sole  monarch  is 
sufficient  to  pervade  and  protect  at  the  same  time  both 
the  East  and  the  West.  In  their  own  name,  and  in  the 
name  of  the  people,  they  consent  that  the  seat  of  universal 
empire  shall  be  transferred  from  Rome  to  Constantinople. 
.  .  .  The  republic  .  .  .  may  safely  confide  in  the  civil  and 
military  virtues  of  Odovaker;  and  they  humbly  request 
that  the  emperor  will  invest  him  with  the  title  of  patri- 
cian,1 and  with  the  administration  of  ...  Italy."  This 

1  A  title  used  in  the   late   empire,  conferring   high   honor,  generally 
accompanied  with  substantial  power. 


THE    CHRISTIAN    EMPIRE.  235 

request  granted,  Odovaker  becomes  ruler  of  Italy,  and 
grants,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  the  rule  of  Gaul 
and  Spain  to  the  king  of  the  Arian  Visigoths.  This  event 
of  476  is  popularly  known  as  the  "FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN 
EMPIRE." 

STUDY   ON  2. 

What  great  change  has  passed  over  the  population  of  the  empire  ? 
(Compare  maps  on  pp.  190  and  252,  253.)  Through  what  part  of  the 
Roman  organization  has  this  been  accomplished?  Through  what 
faults  of  Roman  character  ?  What  in  organization  on  the  barbarian 
side  has  favored  this  change  ?  In  character  ?  In  what  did  the  so- 
called  "  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  "  consist  ?  What  proofs  did  that 
event  give  of  her  weakness?  What  events  prepared  the  way  for  this? 

What  tendencies  caused  the  foundation  of  Constantinople  and  the 
establishment  of  Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the  empire  ?  What 
facts  can  you  give  to  illustrate  or  prove  the  absolutism  of  the  empe- 
rors during  this  period  ?  In  what  matter  do  they  show  themselves 
especially  interested?  By  virtue  of  what  imperial  office  may  they  con- 
sider this  matter  their  business?  What  tendency  culminates  in  the 
Council  of  Nice,  and  what  danger  does  that  council  enable  the  Church 
to  avoid  ?  What  relation  do  the  barbarians  hold  to  Christianity  ?  To 
its  orthodox  form?  What  relation  between  these  facts  and  their 
peaceful  or  hostile  relations  with  the  provincials?  Illustrate.  Do  you 
know  of  any  similar  facts  in  modern  times? 

What  are  the  centres  of  ecclesiastical  power  ?  Why  do  they  become 
so  ?  Of  the  two,  which  centre  has  the  fewer  rivals  in  its  own  part  of 
the  empire?  (See  map.)  Which  of  the  two  will  be  comparatively 
greater  ? 

Name  two  or  three  things  which  the  barbarians  learned  or  adopted 
from  the  Romans  before  476  A.D.  What  characterizes  this  period  ? 
Had  you  been  a  Roman  living  at  476  A.D.,  how  would  you  have 
described  the  event  known  as  the  "Fall  of  Rome"? 


236  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

3.  List  of  Great  Names  of  the  Period. 

a.  Men  of  Hie  Fourth  Century. 


Birth  and  Circumstance, 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Ambrose,  St. 


Anthony,  St. 


Arius. 


Athanasius. 


Born  in  Gaul,  of  Roman 
family  of  high  official 
rank ;  educated  at 
Rome ;  lawyer  and 
consular  magistrate ; 
bishop  of  Milan. 


Greek  soldier  of  Anti- 
och,  of  good  family. 

Of  a  wealthy  Christian 
Egyptian  family ; 
supported  himself  by 
cultivating  a  small 
field  of  wheat,  and  by 
making  mats. 


Egyptian;  deacon, 
presbyter  of  Alexan- 
dria ;  educated  at 
Antioch. 

Egyptian ;  educated  at 
Alexandria,  where  he 
became  archbishop. 


Author  of  letters,  com- 
mentaries, sermons, 
and  hymns ;  intro- 
duced responsive 
singing  into  church 
service ;  founded  a 
monastery  in  Milan; 
ransomed  from  the 
barbarians,  with  the 
wealth  of  the  Church, 
an  enormous  number 
of  captives. 

Author  of  a  continua- 
tion of  the  history  of 
Tacitus. 

Lived  alone  in  a  moun- 
tain desert  on  bread 
and  water,  fasting, 
praying,  laboring ; 
believed  by  himself 
and  others  to  work 
miracles ;  father  of 
monasticism;  wrote  a 
few  letters  to  Eastern 
churches. 

Author  of  the  Arian 
heresy. 


Defender  of  orthodoxy 
against  Arius ;  con- 
troversial and  theo- 
logical writings. 


THE    CHKJLSTIAX    EMPIRE. 


237 


Birth  and  Circumstance. 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Language 
used. 


Autrustine,  St. 


Constantine. 


Basil,  St. 


Numidian,  of  humble 
parentage;  bishop  of 
Hippo. 


Ohrysostom,  St. 


McesianC?) ;  son  of 
previous  emperor; 
soldier  and  general. 

Cappadocian ;  of  noble 
and  wealthy  Christian 
family;  educated  at 
Caesarea,  Constanti- 
nople, and  Athens; 
bishop  of  Cassarea. 


Born  at  Antioch,  of 
high,  official,  and 
wealthy  family ;  edu- 
cated as  a  lawyer; 
preacher;  ascetic 
and  monk ;  bishop  of 
Constantinople. 


Professor  of  rhetoric 
and  writer  on  Chris- 
tian theology ;  de- 
fender of  orthodox 
Christianity  against 
various  heresies; 
founded  a  convent 
and  monastery;  au- 
thor of  letters,  com- 
mentaries, personal 
confessions,  sermons, 
and  of  the  "  City  of 
God,"  a  comparison 
of  Rome  and  the 
Church. 

Founder  of  Constanti- 
nople.    (See  Summary 
of  Events.) 

Teacher  of  rhetoric ; 
used  his  wealth  for 
the  poor;  founded  in 
Asia  Minor  self- 
supporting  monastic 
communities  devoted 
to  prayer  and  labor; 
founded  hospitals, 
houses  of  refuge, 
orphanages ;  author 
of  moral  and  theo- 
logical works. 

Famous  orator  and 
preacher;  author  of 
letters,  commentaries, 
sermons,  orations ; 
popularized  the  use 
of  hymns  in  Con- 
stantinople. 


L:it 


Greek 


Greek 


238 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


Name. 


Birth  and  Circumstance. 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Eusebius. 
Eutropius. 


Gregory, 
Nazianzen. 


Helena,  St. 


Jerome,  St. 


Julian. 


Native  and  bishop  of 
Caesarea. 

Soldier,  and  secretary 
for  Constautine ;  a 
tolerant  pagan. 

Cappadocian;  studied 
at  Caesarea,  Alexan- 
dria, and  Athens; 
monk  with  St.  Basil ; 
bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople. 

Mother  of  Constantine 
British(?)  Christian. 


Pannonian;  of  family 
in  good  circumstances 
and  position ;  studied 
rhetoric  at  Rome  and 
Treves ;  hermit  in 
Syrian  desert. 


Nephew  of  Constan- 
tine ;  emperor  of 
Rome. 


Author  of  an  ecclesi- 
astical history. 

Author  of  a  summary 
of  Roman  history. 

Poet  and  orator,  speak- 
ing and  writing  on 
religious  themes ; 
gave  his  property  to 
the  poor. 

Ransomed  captives ; 
gave  largely  to  the 
needy ;  pilgrim  to 
Palestine,  where  it  is 
said  she  discovered 
the  Holy  Sepulchre 
and  the  true  cross. 

Translator  of  the  Bible 
into  Latin  (  Vulgate) ; 
used  his  own  wealth 
to  support  religious 
and  charitable  work; 
promoted  the  found- 
ing of  convents  and 
monasteries;  author 
of  letters,  commenta- 
ries, historical  and 
controversial  writings 
connected  with  the 
Church. 

Attempts  to  restore 
paganism ;  author  of 
refutation  of  Christi- 
anity and  of  memoirs 
of  his  German 
campaigns. 


THE   CHRISTIAN   EMPIRE. 


239 


Birth  and  Circumstance. 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Martin,  St. 


Theodosius. 


Ulfilas. 


Pannonian ;  of  respect- 
able family;  soldier; 
monk ;  bishop  of 
Tours. 


Son  of  preceding  em- 
peror; military 
training. 

Goth ;  hostage  at  Con- 
stantinople ;  bishop 
and  missionary  among 
his  own  people. 


Established  first  French 
monastery,  where 
beautiful  manuscripts 
were  produced ;  bril- 
liant orator  and 
"  model  of  charity." 

Author  of  "  Theodosian 
Code,"  a  collection  of 
Roman  laws.  (See  2.) 

Arranged  and  complet- 
ed a  Gothic  alphabet 
and  translated  the 
Bible  into  Gothic. 


b.    Men  of  the  Fifth  Century,  400-476. 


JStius. 

Scythian;  master- 

See  2. 

general  for  Romans. 

Alaric. 

Visigoth,  i.e.  king,  and 

See  2. 

.    .    . 

general  of  Gothic 

legions  in  the  pay  of 

Rome. 

Attila. 

Hun;  war-chief  and 

See  2. 

. 

king  of  Hunnic  bands. 

Claudian. 

Alexandrian  ;  patron- 

Wrote poems  on  con- 

Latin. 

ized  by  Stilicho; 

temporary  life  and 

pagan. 

events. 

Genseric. 

Vandal  king  and  war- 

See  2. 

. 

chief. 

Leo  I.,  the 

Roman  ;  religious  edu- 

Wrote sermons  and 

Latin. 

Great,  St. 

cation  ;  deacon  ; 

letters.   (See  2.) 

ambassador  of  the 

empire;  pope. 

240 


STUDIES    IN   GENERAL    HISTORY. 


Birth  and  Circumstance. 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Language 
used. 


Marcella,  St. 


Odovaker. 


Patrick,  St. 


Salvian. 


Sozomen. 

Sidonius,  Apol- 
linaris,  St. 

Simeon 

Stylites,  St. 


Stilicho. 


Zosimus. 


Roman  lady  of  high 
birth  and  wealth ; 
friend  of  St.  Jerome. 


Teuton;  declared 
king  of  barbarian 
legions  of  Rome. 

Scotch;  son  of  a  Ro- 
man decurion ;  bishop 


Gaul ;  born  at  Cologne 
or  Treves. 

Palestine ;  studied  law 
at  Berytus ;  lawyer. 

Of  a  noble  family  of 
Lyons ;  bishop  of 
Clermont. 

Syrian  shepherd ;  after- 
ward monk-hermit. 


Vandal(?);  general  of 
Roman  legions  of 
west. 

Greek ;  lawyer  and 
magistrate. 


Founded  a  "  Convent 
of  relieving  virgins  " ; 
instructed  by  St.  Je- 
rome ;  used  her  wealth 
and  time  for  religion 
and  charity. 

See  2. 


Converted  the  Irish 
and  arranged  their 
laws  ;  is  thought  to 
have  introduced  Ro- 
man alphabet  into 
Ireland;  established 
monasteries,  schools, 
and  churches. 

Author  of  works  on 
morals  and  theology, 
homilies,  letters. 

Author  of  history  of 
the  Church. 

Author  of  poems  and 
letters. 

Lived  for  30  years  on  a 
pillar  60  ft.  high; 
believed  to 
possess  miraculous 
power ;    councillor  of 
Eastern  emperor ;  ob- 
ject of  pilgrimages. 

See  2. 


Historian  of  Roman 
Empire. 


THE   CHRISTIAN   EMPIRE. 


241 


L 


242  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

STUDY   ON   3. 

To  what  official  classes  do  the  great  men  of  this  period  mostly 
belong?  What  two  kinds  of  greatness  are  prominent?  From  what 
parts  of  the  empire,  or  from  what  nationalities,  does  each  kind  come  ? 
What  reason  can  you  give  for  this?  Of  what  use  is  each  kind? 
Which  is  of  use  to  Rome  in  particular?  Which  to  the  world  in 
general?  What  are  the  centres  of  intellectual  activity  in  the 
empire  ?  What  class  largely  furnish  the  bishops  ?  What  historic  reason 
for  these  facts?  What  are  the  intellectual  tastes  of  the  period?  What 
part  of  the  empire  is  under  predominant  Roman  influence?  Greek? 
What  fact  indicates  this  ?  What  new  ideal  appears  in  this  period  ? 
From  what  part  of  the  empire  comes  the  impulse  towards  this  ideal  ? 
What  new  countries  or  peoples  receive  an  impulse  toward  civilization, 
and  how  does  the  impulse  come  ?  Judging  from  the  picture  on  p.  241, 
what  remark  have  you  to  make  of  the  excellence  of  art  in  this  period  ? 
What  new  material  appears  in  literature  and  in  art? 


4.  Significant  Laws  and  Customs  of  the  Period. 

a.  Under  Constantine.  —  Bishops  were  made  judges  of 
all  the  officers  of  the  Church,  and  of  all  who  sinned  against 
her.  —  The  churches  in  each  city  were  allowed  to  own 
land,  and  were  given  a  regular  allowance  of  grain  for 
distribution  among  the  poor.  —  Criminals  were  no  longer 
to  be  branded  on  the  forehead,  since  man  was  made  in  the 
"image  of  God,"  nor  were  men  to  be  condemned  to  fight 
as  gladiators.  —  Parents  were  forbidden  to  expose  or  sell 
their  children  because  of  poverty,1  and  prison  regulations 
became  milder.  —  Two  laws  were  issued  in  the  same  year: 
one,  that  Sunday  should  be  strictly  observed ;  the  other, 
that  the  auguries  should  be  regularly  consulted.  —  From 
this  time  on,  it  was  legal  to  use  torture  with  every  class 
of  citizens,  when  the  charge  was  treason  against  "the 
prince  or  republic."  —  The  chief  officers  of  the  empire 
were  saluted  as  "  Your  Sincerity,  Your  Gravity,  Your 

1  The  burden  of  taxation  was  such  that  these  practices  were  common. 


THE   CHRISTIAN    EMPIKE.  243 

Excellency,  Your  Eminence,  Your  Sublime  and  Won- 
derful Magnitude,  Your  Illustrious  and  Magnificent 
Highness." 

In  the  reign  of  Constantine,  and  even  before,  many 
Christians  went  to  the  wildest  and  most  solitary  places, 
and  there  lived,  clothed  in  rags  or  skins,  suffering  heat  and 
cold,  hunger  and  thirst,  and  spending  their  time  in  prayer 
and  the  various  exercises  of  religion.  Such  were  said  to 
be  ascetics;  in  many  parts  of  the  empire  these  ascetics 
were  gathered  into  communities,  and  lived  together  under 
vows  of  poverty,  celibacy,  and  holiness.  Such  a  com- 
munity of  men  (monks)  made  the  monastery ;  of  women 
(mms),  the  nunnery. 

b.  Julian  orders  one  of  his  pagan  priests  to  "build  nume- 
rous places  of  refuge  and  entertainment  of  strangers   in 
every   city.      For   it   is   a   disgrace   that    these    impious 
Christians,  besides  their  own  people,  should  support  ours 
also,  while  ours  are  seen  of  all  men  to  perish  without  any 
assistance  from  us." 

c.  Under  Theodosius.  —  The  Theodosian  code  consisted 
of  16  books  written  in   Latin,  the  last  being  wholly  de- 
voted to  ecclesiastical  law.     In  it  occurred  the  following 
decrees : — 

"  It  is  our  pleasure  that  all  the  nations  .  .  .  should  stead- 
fastly adhere  to  the  religion  which  was  taught  by  St.  Peter 
to  the  Romans ;  .  .  .  and  as  we  judge  all  others  are  extrav- 
agant madmen,  we  brand  them  with  the  infamous  name 
of  heretics."  —  Curials,  who  had  cheated  about  the  taxes 
or  owed  anything  upon  them,  were  to  be  scourged  with  a 
whip  knotted  with  lead. 

"  In  the  churches  situated  in  the  domains  of  any  private 
person,  or  in  a  village,  or  in  any  other  place,  let  them  only 
ordain  as  priests  the  men  of  the  place  itself,  and  not  of 
any  other  domain,  in  order  that  they  may  continue  to  bear 


244  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

the  burden  of  the  poll-tax.  .  .  .  With  respect  to  slaves  or 
laborers,  the  admonition  of  their  masters,  and  repeated 
floggings,  will  deter  them  from  this  perverse  faith " 
of  paganism. 

In  the  time  of  Theodosius,  the  flight  of  birds  was  still 
consulted  by  the  augurs;  and,  at  his  death,  the  same 
heathen  honors  were  paid  him  as  to  the  pagan  emperors. 

5.    Illustrative  Extracts   and   Stories    from    Contempo- 
rary Sources. 

a.     From  Ammianus.      (Of  the  life  at  Rome.) 

"  In  the  first  place,  we  will  speak  of  the  faults  of  the  nobles. 
.  .  .  Some  men  .  .  .  are  magnificent  in  silken  robes  .  .  .  and  are 
followed  by  a  vast  troop  of  servants,  with  a  din  like  that  of  a 
company  of  soldiers.  .  .  .  Some  of  these,  when  any  one  meets 
and  begins  to  salute  them,  toss  their  heads,  .  .  .  offering  their 
flatterers  their  knees  or  hands  to  kiss.  A  number  of  idle 
chatterers  frequent  their  houses,  and  .  .  .  admire  the  construc- 
tion of  the  lofty  pillars,  and  the  walls  inlaid  with  stones  of 
carefully  chosen  colors,  and  extol  these  grandees  with  super- 
human praises.  Sometimes  scales  are  sent  for  at  their  enter- 
tainments to  weigh  the  fish,  or  the  birds,  or  the  dormice  which 
are  set  on  the  table ;  and  then  the  size  of  them  is  dwelt  on  over 
and  over  again,  to  the  great  weariness  of  those  present  .  .  . 
especially  when  near  thirty  secretaries  stand  by,  with  .  .  . 
memorandum  books,  to  record  all  these  circumstances.  .  .  .  And 
there  are  among  them  some  who  are  such  severe  judges  of 
offenses,  that  if  a  slave  is  tox>  long  in  bringing  them  hot  water, 
they  will  order  him  to  be  scourged  with  three  hundred  stripes. 
.  .  .  Many  among  them  deny  the  existence  of  a  superior 
Power  in  heaven,  and  yet  neither  appear  in  public,  nor  dine, 
nor  think  that  they  can  bathe  .  .  .  before  they  have  consulted 
an  almanac,  and  learnt  where  [for  example]  the  planet  Mercury 
is,  or  in  what  portion  of  Cancer  the  moon  is  as  she  passes 
through  the  heavens.  .  .  .  And  let  us  come  to  the  idle  and  lazy 


THE   CHRISTIAN   EMPIRE.  245 

common  people  .  .  .  These  men  spend  their  whole  lives  in 
drinking,  and  gambling  .  .  .  and  pleasures,  and  public  specta- 
cles ;  .  .  .  the  Circus  Maximus  is  their  temple,  their  home,  their 
public  assembly  ;  in  fact,  their  whole  hope  and  desire.  .  .  . 
When  the  wished-for  day  of  the  equestrian  games  dawns  .  .  . 
they  all  rush  out  with  headlong  haste,  as  if  with  their  speed 
they  would  outstrip  the  verv  chariots  which  are  going  to  race  ; 
while,  as  to  the  event  of  the  contest,  they  are  all  torn  asunder 
by  opposite  wishes,  and  the  greater  part  of  them,  through  their 
anxiety,  pass  sleepless  nights.  .  .  .  Among  these  men  are 
many  chiefly  addicted  to  fattening  themselves  up  by  gluttony, 
who,  following  the  scent  of  any  delicate  food,  .  .  .  get  an  en- 
trance into  the  halls,  biting  their  nails  while  the  dishes  are 
getting  cool." 

Ammianus,  writing  for  the  East,  tells  us  that  in  the  Gothic 
war  the  Goths  were  aided  by  "no  inconsiderable  number  of 
men  .  .  .  who  were  unable  to  endure  the  heavy  burden  of  their 
taxes."  And  Orosius,  in  Spain,  says :  These  same  Van- 
dals "treat  the  Romans  so  kindly  that  there  are  found 
those  who  prefer  freedom  with  poverty  among  the  barbari- 
ans to  a  life  rendered  miserable  by  taxation  among  their  own 
countrymen." 

b.   From  a  Letter  of  St.  Jerome. 

"I  sat  alone;  I  was  filled  with  bitterness;  my  limbs  were 
uncomely  and  rough  with  sackcloth,  and  my  squalid  skin  became 
as  black  as  an  Ethiopian's.  Even"  day  I  was  in  tears  and 
groans ;  and  if  ever  the  sleep  which  hung  upon  my  eyelids 
overcame  my  resistance,  I  knocked* against  the  ground  my  bare 
bones,  which  scarce  clung  together.  I  say  nothing  of  my  meat 
and  drink,  since  the  monks  even  when  sick  use  cold  water,  and 
it  is  thought  a  luxury  if  they  ever  partake  of  cooked  food. 
Through  fear  of  hell,  I  had  condemned  myself  to  prison  ;  I  had 
scorpions  and  wild  beasts  for  my  only  companions.  .  .  .  My 
face  was  white  with  fasting,  my  body  was  cold ;  the  man, 
within  his  own  flesh,  was  dead  before  his  time." 


246  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

STUDY  ON   4,   AND  5  a  AND  b. 

Name  all  the  evidences  displayed  by  these  extracts  of  the  power  of 
Christianity.  What  kinds  of  power  are  shown  ?  In  what  way  is  this 
power  exercised  ?  Proofs.  What  does  4  tell  us  of  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment? Of  its  spirit?  What  relation  seems  to  exist  between  pa- 
ganism and  Christianity?  What  new  persecution  arises?  What  new 
organization  springs  from  the  new  ideal  which  you  have  noted  in 
such  men  as  St.  Jerome  ?  What  evils  and  vices  exist  in  the  Roman 
Empire  of  this  period  ?  What  relation  between  these  evils  and  vices 
and  her  previous  history  ?  What  relation  between  them  and  the  so- 
called  "Fall  of  the  Western  Empire  "  ?  Against  what  manner  of  life 
and  what  Roman  ideal  does  5  b  show  a  reaction  ? 


c    From  St.  Augustine's  "City  of  God."     (Of  the  pagan  gods.) 

"  Why  did  those  gods  .  .  .  issue  no  laws  which  might  have 
guided  their  devotees  to  a  virtuous  life?  .  .  .  Let  them  show  or 
name  to  us  the  places  which  were  at  any  time  consecrated  to 
assemblages,  in  which  .  .  .  the  people  were  commanded  in  the 
name  of  the  gods  to  restrain  avarice,  bridle  impurity,  and  con- 
quer ambition,  ...  as  we  can  point  to  our  churches  built  for 
this  purpose  in  every  land  where  the  Christian  religion  is 
received."  "  Know  then,  that  the  scenic  games,  exhibitions  of 
shameless  folly  and  license,  were  established  at  Rome,  not  by 
men's  vicious  cravings,  but  by  the  appointment  of  your  gods.  .  .  . 
These  astute  and  wicked  spirits  .  .  .  took  occasion  to  infect,  not 
the  bodies,  but  the  morals  of  their  worshippers." 

(Of  Rome.) 

"To  be  brief,  the  city  of  Rome  was  founded  ...  by  which 
God  was  pleased  to  conquer1  the  whole  world,  and  subdue  it  far 
and  wide  by  bringing  it  into  one  fellowship  of  government  and 
laws." 

d.  Theodosius  and  Ambrose. 

In  a  fit  of  rage  the  Emperor  Theodosius  had  ordered  a  gen- 
eral massacre  of  the  people  in  one  of  the  cities  of  the  empire. 
Soon  after,  he  entered  the  great  church  of  Milan  to  worship 


THE   CHRISTIAN   EMPIRE.  247 

there  as  usual.  In  the  doorway,  Ambrose,  the  archbishop,  met 
him  with  the  words  :  "  Robed  as  you  are  in  the  imperial  pur- 
ple, you  are  still  but  a  man  whose  body  will  crumble  to  dust, 
whose  spirit  will  return  to  the  God  who  gave  it.  "What  account 
will  you  then  be  able  to  give  of  this  dreadful  massacre  of  your 
subjects?  Your  subjects  indeed,  but  also  your  fellow-servants, 
with  souls  as  precious  in  the  sight  of  God  as  yours."  The 
emperor,  full  of  remorse  and  repentance,  humbled  himself 
before  the  archbishop,  who  proposed  to  him  the  following  plan  : 
that  he  should  prepare  a  law  that  no  man  should  be  put  to 
death  until  thirty  days  after  his  condemnation.  To  this  the 
emperor  agreed.  Soon  after,  he  tried  to  partake  of  the  com- 
munion within  the  altar  railings ;  but  Ambrose  sent  this  mes- 
sage to  him:  "The  emperor  must  worship  outside  the  rails 
with  the  rest  of  the  laity."  Theodosius  obeyed,  excusing  him- 
self, because  in  Constantinople  he  had  always  come  within  the 
altar  space. 

e.   From  Claudian.     (On  the  prime   minister   of  the   Eastern 
emperor.) 

' '  He  who  was  wont  to  satisfy  his  greed 
"With  pantry  pickings,  and  on  crusts  to  feed, 
Who  from  its  hinges  wrenched  the  cupboard  door 
And  stuck  sly  fingers  in  the  housewife's  store, 
Now  wastes  the  world !    All  lands  that  intervene 
Twixt  Persia's  sands  and  Balkan's  forests  green 
Are  set  for  sale  by  this  base  huckstering  slave. 

One  governs  Asia,  for  a  farm  'twas  sold ; 

Another  Syria  [sapphires  set  in  gold] 

His  wife's  adornment,  were  the  price  he  paid ; 

***** 
A  tariff  rules  the  various  nations'  fates  — 
Galatia,  Pontus,  Lydia  sold  like  sheep  ; 
Lycia's  a  bargain,  you  shall  have  it  cheap ; 
For  Phrygia  we  must  charge  a  little  more." 


248  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL    HISTORY. 

From    Zosimus.       (Of   the    prime    ministers    of   the    sons    of 
Theodosius.) 

"  By  these  men,  all  lawsuits  were  divided  according  to  their 
own  pleasure,  and  that  litigant  departed  victorious  who  had 
purchased  their  vote  with  money,  or  had  in  some  other  way  .  .  . 
influenced  the  good-will  of  the  judge  ;  .  .  .  wealth  poured  from 
all  quarters  into  the  mansions  of  Rufinus  and  Stilicho  (the 
ministers) ,  while  poverty  was  everywhere  overspreading  houses 
once  accounted  wealthy." 
/.  From  Salvian.  (On  taxation.) 

"  Messengers  arrive  express,  bringing  letters  from  the  High- 
est Sublimities  [emperor]  which  are  addressed  to  a  few  illus- 
trious persons  to  work  the  ruin  of  the  multitude.  These  meet ; 
they  decree  certain  additions  to  the  taxes,  but  they  do  not  pay 
these  taxes  themselves  ;  they  leave  that  to  be  done  by  the  poor. 
.  .  .  Does  it  seem  unreasonable  to  complain  that  one  class 
orders  the  taxes  which  have  to  be  paid  by  another?  .  .  .  and 
if  it  should  happen  .  .  .  that  the  emperor  should  .  .  .  decree  a 
return  of  some  part  of  the  contributions  to  the  poor  province, 
at  once  these  rich  men  divide  among  themselves  the  gift  which 
was  meant  to  help  all.  ...  So  far  are  the  barbarian  Goths  from 
tolerating  frauds  like  these,  that  not  even  the  Romans  who  live 
under  Gothic  rule  are  called  upon  to  endure  them.  And  hence 
the  one  wish  of  all  the  Romans  in  those  parts  is,  that  it  may 
never  be  necessary  for  them  to  pass  under  the  Roman  jurisdic- 
tion. .  .  .  And  thus  the  name  of  Roman  citizen  is  now  volun- 
tarily abandoned  ;  nay,  it  is  shunned." 
(The  vow.) 

"A  powerful  [man]  .  .  .  wished  to  take  away  the  last 
remnant  of  a  poor  man's  substance.  Salvian  "  remonstrated, 
but  "  the  man  replied  that  the  deed  was  '  now  a  religious  duty 
which  he  dared  not  neglect,'  because  he  '  had  sworn  by  Christ 
to  take  that  man's 


g.    From  a  Letter  of  Synesius. 

In  the  first  years  of  the  fifth  century,  the  bishop  Synesius, 
addressing  the  Eastern  emperor,  writes,  "  There  is  scarcely  one 


THE    CHRISTIAN    EMPIRE.  249 

of  our  families  who  has  not  some  Goth  as  a  servant ;  in  our 
cities,  the  masons,  the  water-carriers,  the  porters,  are  Goths." 

h.    From    Orosius.       (The   speech   of      Athaulf,    brother    of 

Alaric  [see  2]). 

"  It  was  at  first  my  wish  to  destroy  the  Roman  name,  and 
erect  in  its  place  a  Gothic  empire,  taking  to  myself  the  place  and 
the  powers  of  Caesar  Augustus.  But  when  experience  taught 
me  that  the  untameable  barbarism  of  the  Goths  would  not 
suffer  them  to  live  beneath  the  sway  of  law  .  .  .,  1  chose  the 
glory  of  renewing  and  maintaining  by  Gothic  strength  the  fame 
of  Rome,  desiring  to  go  down  to  posterity  as  the  restorer  of 
that  Roman  power  which  it  was  beyond  my  power  to  replace." 

Compare  with  this  the  following  letter  from  the  Burgundian 
king  to  the  Eastern  emperor.  He  writes  to  thank  the  emperor 
for  the  titles  of  Count  and  Patrician,  which  were  conferred  upon 
him.  "My  people  is  yours,"  he  writes,  "and  to  rule  them 
delights  me  less  than  to  serve  you.  .  .  .  Our  ancestors  have 
always  preferred  what  an  emperor  gave  to  all  their  fathers 
could  bequeath.  In  ruling  our  nation,  we  hold  ourselves  but 
your  lieutenants :  you,  whose  divinely-appointed  sway  no 
barrier  bounds,  whose  beams  shine  from  the  Bosphorus  into 
distant  Gaul,  employ  us  to  administer  the  remoter  regions  of 
your  empire  ;  your  world  is  our  Fatherland." 

STUDIES  ON   5,  c-h. 

What  great  contrast  between  the  faith  of  paganism  and  of  Chris- 
tianity ?  What  were  the  devils  and  demons  of  the  early  Church  ? 
What  did  Rome  seem  to  the  Church  and  the  empire  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries?  To  the  barbarians?  What  was  the  comparative 
power  of  the  Church  in  Rome  and  Constantinople  ?  What  reason  can 
you  think  of  for  this  ?  What  power  had  Ambrose  over  Theodosius  ? 
What  influence  did  he  exert?  What  principle  did  he  announce?  In 
what  way  was  the  government  carried  on,  judging  from  the  extracts  ? 
What  evils  do  these  extracts  prove  to  exist  in  the  empire?  What 
light  does  f  throw  on  the  easy  change  of  power  from  Roman  to  bar- 
barian hands  ?  How  was  Christianity  very  often  understood  ?  What 
seems  to  have  been  the  ambition  of  the  barbarians? 


250  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

General  Questions.  —  In  what  capacities  did  the  barbarians  enter 
and  become  a  part  of  the  empire  ?  What  did  the  empire  give  them  1 
Prove  it.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  powers  of  the  Church.  What  justifi- 
cation was  there  for  the  persecution  of  heresy  by  emperors?  Who 
was  the  head  of  the  Church  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  period  ?  What 
classes  of  people  did  Christianity  favor,  and  by  whom  would  it  be 
supported? 


II.     BandC.     THE  WEST  UNDER  BARBARIAN  CONTROL; 
EMPIRE   OP  CHARLEMAGNE. 

1.   Summary  of  Events  from  476-800  A.D. 

Age  of  Clovis   and  Theodoric  the  Great,  known  in 
the  North  as  Dietrich  of  Berne  (  Verona) . 

In  the  East,  important  heresies  arise,  causing 
revolt  and  war,  especially  in  Syria  and  Egypt. 

In  Italy,  Theodoric  the  Goth  asks  Zeno,  for  whom 
he  commands  the  Ostrogoths,  to  permit  him  to  drive 
Odovaker  from  Italy  and  become  patrician  in  his  stead 
(see  p.  234).  Zeno  consents,  and  the  Arian  Ostrogoths 
enter  Italy,  where  they  are  granted  one-third  of  the  land ; 
constant  difficulties  arise  between  them  and  the  orthodox 
Italians. 

In  Gaul,  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  is  converted  to 
orthodox  Christianity ;  he  and  his  warriors  are  at  once 
baptized,  and  Clovis  is  henceforth  regarded  by  the  Gallo- 
Romans  as  their  protector.  He  conquers  the  Arian  Visi- 
goths and  Burgundians  (see  map),  receives  from  Constan- 
tine  the  titles  of  patrician  and  consul,  and  becomes  the 
founder  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty  in  France.  At  his 
death  his  dominion  is  divided  among  his  sons. 

In  Britain,  the  constant  struggle  of  the  native  Kelts 
against  the  invading  Saxons  still  goes  on. 


THE   WEST   UNDER   BARBARIAN    CONTROL.  251 

Age  of  Justinian,  Emperor  of  the  East. 

In  the  East,  Justinian  makes,  through  his  lawyer, 
Trebonian,  final  and  authoritative  collections  of 
Roman  law,  known  as  "  The  Code,  the  Pandects,  and  the 
Institutes  of  Justinian."  Through  his  general,  Belisa- 
rius,  he  recovers  Italy,  Africa,  and  Southern  Spain  from 
the  rule  of  the  Goths  and  Vandals,  and  places  them 
directly  under  Byzantine  officials,  the  most  important  of 
whom  is  the  Exarch  of  Ravenna,  who  rules  Italy  in  the 
name  of  the  East.  Meanwhile,  the  empire  is  attacked 
by  Persians,  Slavs,  and  Avars,1  while  it  nearly  loses  Egypt 
and  Syria  by  wide-spread  heresies,  which  cause  great  dis- 
affection towards  Constantinople. 

In  France,  constant  strife  between  kingdoms. 

In  Britain,  continual  war  between  Saxon  and  Kelt. 


Age,  of  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  and  Mohammed. 
In  the  East,  constant  wars  with  Persians  and 


565 

TO 


Avars,  and  constant  difficulties  with  Syrian  and 
Egyptian  heretics.  In  Mecca,  in  Arabia,  MOHAMMED 
is  born ;  claiming  divine  inspiration,  he  preaches  that 
there  is  no  God  but  one,  and  that  Mohammed  is  his 
prophet.  This  doctrine  spreads  rapidly  through  the  East, 
but  Mohammed  is  so  persecuted  at  Mecca,  that,  in  622, 
he  flees  to  Medina  (Hegira) ;  from  that  time,  he  preaches 
to  his  disciples  the  duty  of  fighting  for  their  faith. 

In  Italy,  the  Lombards  seize  the  valley  of  the  Po ;  Italy 
implores  armed  assistance  from  the  East,  which  the  East 
is  unable  to  give.  In  this  crisis  Gregory  the  Great  himself 
directs  the  movements  of  troops,  urges  the  Italians  to 
their  own  defence,  and  finally  makes  a  truce  with  the 
Lombards  without  appealing  to  the  emperor ;  soon  after, 

1  The  Avars  were  of  the  same  race  as  the  modern  Turks,  namely. 
Turanian. 


EUROPE 


IN  THE  REIGN  OF 

THEODORIC 

C      A.   D.   500. 


I       I  Roman  Empire 

I      |    Teutonic  Settlement 

d]   Celts 


254  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

also  through  his  agency,  the   Lombards   exchange   their 
Arian  for  the  orthodox  form  of  Christianity. 

In  Spain,  the  Vandals  do  the  same. 

In  France,  constant  strife  between  the  kingdoms. 

In  England,  the  Kelts  are  still  resisting  the  invading 
Saxons,  who  are  converted  to  orthodox  Christianity  by 
St.  Augustine  and  his  missionaries,  sent  by  Gregory  the 
Great. 

Age  of  Mohammedan  Conquest. 
In  the  East,  the  Bulgarians  attack  the  empire 
from  the  north,  and  settle  south  of  the  Danube ; 
the  Mohammedans  (Arabians  or  Saracens)  conquer  Per- 
sia, and  easily  wrest  from  the  empire  Syria,  Egypt, 
and  Africa;  everywhere  they  give  men  the  choice  of 
"  Koran,  tribute,  or  sword."  By  the  aid  of  the  African 
Moors,  they  seize  on  Spain  and  enter  France.  Here  they 
are  worsted  by  the  Franks  under  Charles  Martel  (the 
hammer),  and  with  the  battle  of  TOURS,  in  732,  their 
career  of  conquest  in  Europe  ends.  Meanwhile,  they  are 
repulsed  from  Constantinople  by  Leo  the  Isaurian.  In 
the  lands  they  win,  the  caliphs,  or  successors  of  Mo- 
hammed, are  unquestioningly  obeyed  by  all  Mohammedans 
as  God-given  rulers. 

In  France,  continued  strife  between  kingdoms. 

In  Britain,  the  stronger  kingdoms  gradually  overcome 
the  weaker. 

Age  of  Charlemagne. 

The  bishop  of  Rome  and  the  emperor  of  the 
East  quarrel  over  the  true  use  of  images.  The 
Italians,  rising  in  defence  of  their  faith  and  their  bishop, 
slay  the  Exarch.  The  Lombards,  in  the  same  cause,  seize 
on  Ravenna,  and  then  demand  the  submission  of  Rome. 

The  pope  now  calls  on  the  Franks,  who  send  him 
effectual  aid ;  first,  in  the  person  of  Pippin,  who  wrests 


THE    WEST    UNDER    BARBARIAN   CONTROL.  255 

the  Exarchate  l  from  the  Lombards  and  gives  it  to  the 
pope,  who,  in  return,  crowns  him  the  king  of  the  Franks ; 
next,  in  the  person  of  Charlemagne,  who  conquers  the 
Lombards  for  good,  confirms  the  Exarchate  to  the  pope, 
and  is  crowned  emperor  of  the  West  by  Pope  Leo  in 
St.  Peter's  in  Rome  (800).  frhus  begins  the  HOLY  ROMAN 
EMPIRE^  which  includes,  at  Charlemagne's  death,  the 
countries  marked  red  011  the  map,  pp.  256,  257.  The  con- 
quest  of  the  Saxons  is  accompanied  by  their  conversion 
from  paganism  to  Christianity,  Charlemagne  giving  them_ 
a  choice  between  conversion,  and  "deatH  5v  the  s,  word— 
Their  territory  is  made  into  eight  bishoprics,  and  "  these 
episcopal  seats  became  the  first  schools  and  cities  of  that 
savage  land." 

In  Britain,  continued  strife  of  Saxon  kingdoms,  with 
tendency  toward  consolidation. 

The  Mohammedan  Caliphate  is  divided,  the  eastern  lands 
of  Islam  having  as  centre,  first,  Damascus,  then,  Bagdad  ; 
the  western  owning  allegiance  to  the  caliph  of  Cordova. 

STUDY  ON   I  AND  MAP. 

What  appears  the  most  powerful  influence  of  this  period  ?  Xame 
all  the  proofs  of  its  power.  Under  what  titles  do  the  barbarians  rule 
the  West  ?  By  virtue  of  what  force  ?  What  characterizes  this  period  ? 
What  must  have  been  true  of  the  Roman  provincial  life  during  this 
time?  What  kind  of  duties  and  powers  does  the  pope  exercise? 
What  historic  reason  is  there  for  the  supremacy  of  the  bishop  of 
Rome?  "What  parts  of  the  empire  pass  under  Mohammedan  rule? 
What  old  seats  of  Oriental  influence  or  power  does  that  rule  include  in 
Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe?  What  prepared  the  way  for  this  conquest 
in  Syria  and  Egypt?  What  parallel  between  the  history  of  the 
Mohammedan  and  Roman  empires  ?  What  tendencies  culminated  in 
the  crowning  of  Charlemagne?  Does  that  crowning  represent  a 
revolt  from,  or  a  continuation  of  the  Roman  Empire  ?  Compare  the 

1  The  city  and  surrounding  territory  of  Ravenna. 


EUROPE 

IN    THE    TIME    OF 

CHARLES  THE  GREAT 


~^  Western  Caliphate 
~^      |          |  Eastern  Caliphate 


258 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


empire  of  Charlemagne  with  Roman  Empire  of  second  century; 
with  modern  Europe.  What  great  difference  between  this  and  the 
old  empire  in  the  composition  of  its  population?  In  the  source  of 
imperial  power?  What  unity  does  this  new  empire  possess?  Why 
is  it  called  "  Holy  "  ?  Why  "  Roman  "  ?  Name  all  the  conquests  of  the 
Christian  empire  from  Constantine  to  Charlemagne.  What  form 
do  they  assume  with  reference  to  the  Church  ?  To  become  a  Roman 
involved  becoming  what  else  ? 

2.  List  of  Famous  Names  of  Period. 

a.   Men  of  Sixth  Century  (476-600). 


Birth  and  Circumstance. 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Language 
used. 


Augustine,  St. 


Belisarius. 


Benedict,  St. 


Bcethius. 


Roman  monk ;  first 
archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. 


Thracian;  of  obscure 

birth ;  general  of 

Justinian. 
Italian;  of  wealthy 

and  noble  family ; 

hermit. 


Roman  patrician,  con- 
sul, and  senator ;  high 
official  under 
Theodoric. 


Missionary  to  Britain, 
which  he  enters  with 
a  band  of  monks,  sent 
by  Pope  Gregory  the 
Great ;  converts  the 
king  of  Kent  and  his 
people. 

See  1. 


Eloquent  preacher ; 
founder  of  the  sect 
of  Benedictine 
monks,  and  of  many 
monasteries,  notably 
that  of  Monte  Cassi- 
no,  near  Rome. 

Translator  of  Aristotle, 
Ptolemy,  and  other 
Greek  writers ; 
author  of  "  Consola- 
tion of  Philosophy," 
a  work  dealing  witli 
theology  and  phi- 
losophy. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


THE   WEST    UNDER    BARBARIAN    CONTROL. 


259 


Birth  and  Circumstance. 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Cassiodorus. 

Cesaire,  St 

Clovis. 
Columba,  St. 


Columbanus, 
St. 


Gall,  St. 


Gildas. 


Gregory  of 
Tours. 


South  Italian ;  of 
wealthy  and  noble 
family ;  minister  of 
Odovaker  and  Theo- 
doric ;  afterwards, 
Benedictine  monk. 

Gaul;  of  wealthy 
family;  bishop  of 
Aries. 


War-chief  and  king  of  a 
great  band  of  Franks 

Irish ;  of  noble  birth  ; 
educated  in  Ireland ; 
monk  at  lona. 


Born  and  educated  in 
Ireland;  abbot. 


Irish  monk  ;  of  high 
birth ;  educated  in 
Ireland. 


Son  of  a  British  prince ; 

studies  in  Ireland ; 

monk. 
Gaul  of  a  patrician 

family ;  bishop  of 

Tours. 


Author  of  philosophic 
and  historic  works 
and  letters;  founds  a 
monastery,  for  which 
he  collects  a  fine 
library  of  manuscripts 

Eloquent  preacher ;  re- 
stores the  church  of 
St.  Martin,  with  col- 
ored glass  windows; 
theological  writer. 

Seel. 

Founder  of  monastery 
of  lona,  and  of  other 
monasteries  and 
churches ;  preacher, 
poet,  and  missionary 
in  Scotland. 

Missionary  to  wilder 
parts  of  France  and 
Italy,  where  he  founds 
famous  monasteries. 

Missionary  to  Switzer- 
land, where  he  founds 
monastery  of  St. 
Gall,  afterward  the 
centre  of  a  town; 
preacher  and  orator. 

Historian  of  the  Saxon 
conquest  of  Britain. 

Author  of  "  Ecclesiasti- 
cal History  of 
Franks  " ;  student  of 
classics;  ambassador 
between  the  various 
rulers  of  Gaul. 


260 


STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTOKY. 


Birth  and  Circumstance. 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Gregory  I.,  the 
Great. 


Jordanis. 


Justinian. 


Procopius. 


Theodoric. 


Trebonian. 


Of  wealthy  and  noble 
Roman  family ;  high- 
ly educated  in  rhetoric 
and  law;  Benedictine 
monk;  pope. 


Goth;  of  high  birth; 
bishop. 

Son  of  lllyrian  peasant ; 

nephew  of  preceding 

emperor ;  civil  and 

military  official. 
Lawyer  of  Palestine ; 

official  under  Justinian 

Ostrogoth;  of  royal 
line ;  educated  as  a 
hostage  at  Constanti- 
nople ;  general  of  the 
Eastern  legions  (Os- 
trogothic),  who  pro- 
claim him  king. 

Of  Asia  Minor;  lawyer 
and  government 
official. 


Uses  his  fortune  in 
founding  monasteries, 
and  in  charity ;  writer 
of  commentaries, 
hymns,  letters;  sup- 
presses heresies ; 
disciplines  and  organ- 
izes the  Church ;  adds 
the  Gregorian  Chant 
to  church  music,  and 
founds  a  school  for 
choristers ;  fixes  the 
order  of  processions, 
and  of  changes  of 
garments  during 
church  service ;  sends 
missionaries  to  Gaul 
and  Britain.     (See  1.) 

Author  of  a  Gothic 
history,  based  on  that 
of  Cassiodorus. 

See  1. 


Geographer  and  histo- 
rian of  his  own  time. 

See  1. 


Compiler  of  Justinian 
Code,  etc.     (See  1.) 


THE    WEST    UNDER    BARBARIAN   CONTROL.  261 

b.  Men  of  Seventh  Century. 


Name. 

Birth  and  Circumstance. 

Deeds  and  Works. 

Language 
used. 

Abu-bekr. 

Father-in-law  of  Mo- 

Begins conquests  of 

Arabic, 

hammed  ;  elected  the 

Syria  and  Persia  ;  col- 

first caliph  or  succes- 

lects the  Koran  into 

sor  of  Mohammed, 

one  volume  ;  adminis- 

and "Commander  of 

ters  provinces  mostly 

the  Faithful." 

by  native  and  Greek- 

speaking  officials. 

Aidan. 

Irish  ;  monk  from 

Missionary  to  Northum- 

English. 

lona  ;  bishop  of 

bria;  founds  monas- 

Lindisfarne. 

teries  and  schools, 

notably  that  at  Lindis- 

farne, near  the 

Northumbrian  coast. 

Csedmon. 

Northumbrian  cow- 

First Christian  English 

English. 

herd. 

poet  ;  sings  or  para- 

phrases Biblical 

subjects. 

Cuthbert,  St. 

Northumbrian  ;  peasant 

"  Apostle  of  the  low- 

English. 

and  shepherd  ;  monk  ; 

lands  "  of  England  ; 

prior  of  Lindisfarne. 

ascetic  and  hermit. 

Eloi,  St. 

Gaul  ;    bishop  ;    gold- 

Founds schools  of  gold- 

Latin ; 

smith  ;  treasurer  and 

smiths  in  connection 

native 

minister  of  Frankish 

with  some  of  the  mon- 

dialects. 

kings. 

asteries;  missionary 

among  the  Frisians 

(in  northern  part  of 

Holland). 

I.sidorus. 

Of  magisterial  family  ; 

Writer  on  historical, 

Latin. 

bishop  of  Seville. 

theological,  gramma- 

tical, and  scientific 

subjects. 

Mohammed. 

Mecca;  of  noblest 

Founder  of  MOHAM- 

Arabic. 

Arabian  blood,  but 

MEDANISM  ;  preacher 

poor. 

and  teacher  ;  believed 

by  his  followers  to  be 

262 


STUDIES    IX    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


Birth  and  Circumstance. 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Omar. 


Othman. 


Theodore. 


Father-in-law  of  Mo- 
hammed; receives  the 
caliphate  by  will 
from  Abu-bekr. 


Son-in-law  of  Moham- 
med; elected  to 
caliphate  by  commit- 
tee of  six,  chosen  by 
Omar. 

Of  Tarsus;  Greek 
monk  sent  by  Pope 
to  be  archbishop  of 
Canterbury. 


the  inspired  author  of 
the  Koran  and  the 
greatest  prophet  of 
God. 

Preacher  and  ruler; 
divides  his  time  be- 
tween preaching  to 
the  people  and  ad- 
ministering justice 
to  them  ;  Egypt  and 
Palestine  added  to 
the  Saracenic  empire ; 
provinces  adminis- 
tered as  under  Abu- 
bekr  ;  conquest  of 
Syria,  and  continua- 
tion of  that  of  Persia. 

Completes  conquest  of 
Persia ;  begins  that 
of  Africa ;  provinces 
administered  as  under 
Abu-bekr. 

Organizes  the  English 
Catholic  Church  much 
in  its  present  form  ; 
founds  a  school  at 
Canterbury ;  teaches 
medicine,  astronomy, 
Greek,  Latin,  arithme- 
tic, divinity. 


Men  of  Eighth  Century. 
Contemporaries  of  Charlemagne  marked 


'Alcuin. 


English  monk  of  York ; 
abbot  of  St.  Martin. 


Writes  on  philosophy, 
theology ;  invited  to 
Charlemagne's  court 
to  be  chief  of  the 
school  of  the  palace. 


THE    WEST    UXDKIt    BARBARIAN    CONTROL. 


263 


Birth  and  Circumstance. 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Bede. 


Benedict. 


Boniface,  or 
Winifried. 


Charlemagne. 


Charles  Martel. 


Northumbrian  monk; 
student  and  teacher 
in  the  school  of 
Jarrow. 


English  ;  noble  birth ; 
monk. 


Anglo-Saxon  jnonk ; 
afterward  bishop  of 
Mayence. 


King  of  the  Franks ; 
son  of  "  Pepin  the 
Short." 

Frank  ;  mayor  of  the 
palace  of  the  French 
king. 


Author  of  "Ecclesiasti- 
cal History  of  Eng- 
land " ;  translates  Gos- 
pel of  St.  John  into 
English  ;  Greek  and 
Latin  scholar ;  writer 
of  hymns. 

Founds  school  and 
monastery  of  Jarrow, 
causing  the  church  to 
be  built  by  French 
workmen  in  the 
Eoman  style,  and 
adorned  with  glass 
windows,  inserted  by 
French  glaziers ; 
brings  many  books 
into  England  from 
Rome. 

"  The  Apostle  of  Ger- 
many," sent  by  the 
Pope ;  founds  many 
bishoprics  and  monas- 
teries, which  often 
become  towns ;  mas- 
sacred by  the  pagan 
Frisians ;  author  of 
sermons,  letters,  and 
theological  writings. 

Collects  and  arranges 
the  "  Capitularies," 
or  the  body  of  preced- 
ing French  law. 

See  1. 


264 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL    HISTORY. 


Birth  and  Circumstance 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Language 
used. 


*Dungal. 


Cynewulf. 


'Eginhard. 


*IIaroun-al- 
Raschid. 


Geber,  or  Jeber. 


Born  and  educated  in 
Ireland. 


Northumbrian  bard. 


Frank  ;   of  good  birth  ; 
archchaplain ;  super- 
intendent of  public 
works,  and  secretary 
for  Charlemagne ; 
abbot  in  Germany. 

Most  famous  of  the 
caliphs  of  Bagdad ; 
son  of  former  caliph. 


Mesopotamian  Arab ; 
physician. 


Helps  Charlemagne        ; Latin, 
reform  the  calendar ; 
makes  astronomical 
annals ;  chief  teacher 
in  school  at  Paris. 


Composes  riddle-songs ; 
writes  poems  on  sub- 
jects connected  with 
the  life  of  Christ  and 
the  saints ;  their 
forms  show  Latin 
influence. 

Author  of  Life  of 
Charlemagne ;  annals 
and  letters. 


Head  of  a  brilliant 
Oriental  court ;  sends 
a  clock  to  Charle- 
magne, which  is  a 
wonder  to  the  court 
by  reason  of  its  fine 
mechanism  and  its 
metal  work  of  brass 
and  gold. 

Discovered  and  ana- 
lyzed various  chemical 
combinations ;  called 
master  of  masters  by 
Roger  Bacon ;  was 
thought  to  have  dis- 
covered the  art  of 
creating  gold. 


English. 


Latin. 


Arabic. 


Arabic, 
translat- 
ed into 
English. 


THE   WEST    UNDER   BARBARIAN    CONTROL. 


265 


266  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTOEY. 

Note.  —  During  the  seventh,  or  early  in  the  eighth,  century  appears 
the  first  manuscript  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  epic  of  Beowulf,  —  a  poem 
recounting  the  adventures  of  warriors  and  sea-farers.  The  monks  in 
France  and  England  now  begin  to  keep  Latin  chronicles  of  contempo- 
rary events. 

About  the  sixth  century  schools  of  Greek  philosophy  are  founded 
in  Edessa  and  other  Asiatic  cities  by  Syrian  Christians.  The  philoso- 
phy taught  is  that  of  Aristotle. 

Damascus,  Cordova,  Cairo,  and  Bagdad  are  made  the  capitals  and 
centres  of  Mohammedanism.  The  two  latter  cities  are  pure  Moorish 
foundations.  Splendid  domed  mosques  and  palaces  built  in  all  these 
cities. 

Schools  are  founded  at  Bagdad  in  reign  of'  Al-Mansour  in  the  eighth 
century,  where  Aristotle  and  Galen  are  translated  into  Syriac;  the 
same  authors  ai'e  translated  for  the  use  of  the  schools  of  Granada  and 
Cordova. 

STUDY  ON   2  AND  3. 

What  is  the  literary  language  of  Europe  ?  What  is  the  subject  of 
intellectual  interest?  Who  make  the  books  and  direct  the  thought  of 
Europe?  What  special  art  does  the  Church  cultivate ?  What  special 
sort  of  literature?  What  division  of  the  empire  is  most  fertile  in 
great  men  ?  What  still  marks  this  division  ?  What  kinds  of  great- 
ness are  lacking  in  this  period?  What  reason  can  you  find  for  this ? 
Make  a  list  of  all  the  things  which  prove  that  the  Church  is  the 
civilizing  power  of  Europe  during  this  period.  WThat  is  the  source  of 
the  civilization  which  she  gives  ?  What  organization  is  most  active  in 
this  work?  What  people  possess  the  military  and  governmental 
genius  of  Europe  during  this  period  ?  What  historic  reason  for  this  ? 
In  whom  does  this  genius  culminate  ?  What  new  languages  appear 
in  literature?  What  does  that  indicate  of  the  peoples  speaking 
them  ?  What  marks  the  religious  spirit  of  the  period  ?  How  does 
the  Church  tend  to  bring  the  various  parts  of  Europe  into  unity  and 
sympathy  ? 

What  proofs  that  the  Mohammedans  obtained  their  civilization 
from  the  Eastern,  or  Greek  Empire?  What  architectural  construction 
did  they  take  ?  (See  St.  Sophia.)  Of  what  great  cities  were  Cairo 
and  Bagdad  successors? 


THE    WEST    UNDER    BARBARIAN    CONTROL.  267 

4.   Significant  Laws  and  Customs. 

a.  Under  Justinian  and  other  Eastern  Emperors, 

The  Justinian  Code  was  composed  of  twelve  books 
written  in  Greek  and  Latin,  the  first  one  being  devoted  to 
ecclesiastical  matters  and  opening  with  the  imperial  creed 
of  the  Trinity ;  the  rest  consisted  of  a  collection  of  previous 
Roman  law.  In  its  newer  portions  we  find:  .  .  .  "What- 
ever the  prince  wills  has  the  force  of  law,  because  the  peo- 
ple have  yielded  to  him  their  own  sovereignty."  —  Church 
lands  were  still  further  freed  from  taxes,  and  the  bishop  of 
each  city  was  made  the  inspector  of  its  accounts  and  of  the 
moneys  used  for  the  public  good  in  baths,  markets,  bridges, 
aqueducts.  —  In  all  quarrels  in  the  East,  Constantinople 
was  declared  arbiter. 

After  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (near  Constantinople) 
the  Emperor  Marcian  issued  two  laws:  one  forbade  the 
future  agitation  of  all  questions  concerning  the  nature  of 
Christ,  and  affixed  severe  penalties  to  their  discussion; 
the  other  confirmed  the  conclusions  of  the  Council,  and 
declared  that  no  private  man  could  hope  to  reach  so  sound 
a  conclusion  as  the  Council.  This  Council  also  made  Rome 
and  Constantinople  equal  seats  of  episcopal  authority  and 
the  highest  of  appeal. 

b.  Under  the  Barbarians. 

In  Italy.  —  Theodoric  wore  the  official  dress  and  bore 
and  gave  the  official  titles  of  Rome.  He  swore  in  the 
Senate  to  maintain  the  imperial  laws,  which  Latin  coun- 
cillors helped  him  to  interpret  and  apply.  He  it  was  who 
charged  the  prefect  of  the  city  to  keep  up  the  "forests  of 
stately  buildings,  the  statues  which  peopled  the  city,  the. 
herds  of  equestrian  images." 

In  France.  — During  this  period,  Romans  were  judged 


268  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

by  Roman,  Franks  by  Frankish,  Burgundians  by  Burgun- 
dian  law,  though  they  might  be  living  on  the  same  territory 
and  under  the  same  ruler.  Church  law,  however,  was  the 
same  for  all,  as  were  many  of  the  laws  of  Charlemagne. 

The  first  considerable  collection  of  Frankish  law  was  the 
Capitularies1  of  Charlemagne.  Of  these,  621  were  acts  of 
civil,  and  415  of  religious,  legislation.  These  laws  imposed 
the  death  penalty  on  any  Saxon  who  should  refuse  baptism, 
return  to  idolatry,  murder  a  priest  or  bishop,  offer  human 
sacrifice,  eat^  meat  in  Lent.  —  Baptism  or  repentance  could 
atone  for  every  crime.  —  "  Not  too  many  slaves  were 
allowed  to  flee  to  the  monasteries,  lest  the  country  estates 
become  desolate."  —  "  The  king  must  walk  uprightly.  .  .  . 
If  he  act  with  piet}r,  justice,  clemency,  he  deserves  the  name 
of  king ;  otherwise,  he  is  not  a  king,  but  a  tyrant.  .  .  .  [He 
is]  the  defender  of  the  churches,  of  the  servants  of  God,  of 
the  widows,  of  the  other  poor,  of  all  who  are  in  distress." 

One  of  the  earliest  collections  of  Visigothic  law  opened 
as  follows :  — 

"  In  this  volume  are  contained  the  laws  or  decisions  of 
equity,  selected  from  the  Theodosian  Code  and  other 
books.  .  .  .  With  the  aid  of  God,  occupied  with  the  inter- 
ests of  our  people,  we  have  corrected,  after  mature  delib- 
eration, all  that  seemed  iniquitous  in  the  laws,  in  such 
manner  that,  by  the  labor,  of  the  priests  and  other  noble- 
men, all  obscurity  in  the  Roman  and  in  our  own  ancient 
laws  is  dissipated." 

In  England.  —  Ethelbert,  that  king  of  Kent  who  was 
converted  to  Christianity  by  Augustine,  issued  the  first 
English  laws  extant;  among  them  were  the  following: 
"  Property  stolen  from  the  Church  [shall]  be  restored 
twelve-fold,  that  taken  from  the  king  but  nine-fold." - 

1  Capitularies,  "  little  headings,"  the  written  summaries  of  law  ami 
custom  made  by  early  French  ruk-rs. 


THE    WEST    UNDEIl    BARBARIAN    CONTROL.  269 

Withred,  king  of  Kent,  thus  decreed  :  "  For  I,  Withredv 
an  eartlily__king,  stimulated  by  the  heavenly~¥mg,  and 
kindled  with  the  zeal  of  righteousness,  have  learned  from 
the  institutes  of  our  forefathers  that  no  layman  ought  to 
appropriate  to  himself  a  church  or  any  of  the  things  which 
to  a  church  belong.  And  therefore  ...  we  decree,  and 
in  the  name  of  Almighty  God  and  of  all  saints,  we  forbid 
to  all  kings  our  successors,  and  to  aldermen,  and  to  all 
laymen,  any  lordship  over  churches  and  over  any  of  their 
possessions." 

c.  In  the  Church.  (Extracts  from  the  "Rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict," generally  followed  in  the  monasteries  of  the  West.) 
"  Laziness  is  the  enemy  of  the  soul,  and  consequently  the 
brothers  should,  at  certain  times,  occupy  themselves  in  manual 
labor ;  at  others,  in  holy  reading.  ...  If  the  povert}'  of  the 
place,  necessity,  or  the  harvest  keep  them  constantly  employed, 
let  them  not  mind  that,  for  they  are  truly  monks  if  they  live  by 
manual  labor,  as  our  brothers  the  apostles  did ;  but  let  every 
thing  be  done  with  moderation,  for  the  sake  of  the  weak.  .  .  . 
During  Lent  all  shall  receive  books  from  the  library,  which 
they  shall  read  one  after  another,  all  through.  ...  On  Sunday 
let  all  be  occupied  in  reading,  except  those  who  are  selected  for 
various  functions.  If  any  one  be  negligent  or  lazy,  so  that  he 
wishes  neither  to  meditate  nor  read,  let  some  labor  be  enjoined 
upon  him,  so  that  he  may  not  remain  doing  nothing.  ...  If, 
by  chance,  anything  difficult  or  impossible  be  imposed  upon  a 
brother,  .  .  .  let  him  explain  fitly  and  patiently  to  his  superior 
tin;  reason  of  the  impossibility,  not  inflamed  with  pride,  not 
resisting,  not  contradicting.  If,  after  his  observation,  the  prior 
persists  in  his  opinion  and  his  command,  let  the  disciple  know 
that  it  ought  to  be  so,  and  confiding  in  the  aid  of  God,  let  him 
obey.  .  .  .  Let  no  person  dare  to  give  or  receive  without  the 
order  of  the  abbot,  nor  have  anything  of  his  mvn  peculiar  prop- 
erty, not  a  book,  nor  tablets,  nor  :i  pen,  nor  anything  whatso- 
ever." "  Love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  the  whole  heart,  whole 


270  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

soul,  whole  strength,  and  thy  neighbor  as  thyself.  Renounce 
luxuries.  Relieve  the  poor.  Clothe  the  naked.  Do  no  injuries, 
and  bear  them  patiently.  When  you  see  anything  good  in  your- 
self, attribute  it  to  God  and  not  to  yourself." 

Among  the  ordinances  of  Gregory  the  Great  are  the  fol- 
lowing:  "We  understand  that  the  price  paid  for  corn  to  the 
peasant  subjects  of  the  Church  is  lowered  in  times  of  abund- 
ance ;  we  desire  that  they  shall  always  be  paid  according  to  the 
current  price.  We  forbid  that  the  farmers  shall  pay  more  than 
the  rate  fixed  in  their  locality.  .  .  .  Every  pagan  or  Jewish 
slave  who  desires  to  become  a  Christian  should  be  freed  at  the 
cost  of  the  Church." 

******* 

"We  have  learned  also  that  in  some  farms  of  the  Church 
there  exists  a  most  unjust  system,  namely,  that  out  of  seventy 
bushels,  the  farmers  exact  (from  their  tenants,  or  serfs)  three 
and  a  half.  .  .  .  We  wholly  detest  this  custom.  ...  Do  you 
appoint  .  .  .  that  they  may  pay  in  the  whole  two  bushels  in 
seventy  ;  but  that,  beyond  this,  no  shameful  exaction  be  made." 

STUDY  ON  4. 

What  were  the  sources  of  law  during  this  time  ?  What  was  the 
most  powerful  influence  at  work  upon  the  laws  ?  Among  whom  was 
this  influence  strongest?  Name  the  changes  evidently  clue  to  this 
influence.  What  form  did  the  government  of  the  empire  positively 
assume  ?  Make  a  list  of  the  powers  given  to  the  Church  during  this 
time.  What  determined  by  what  law  a  man  should  be  judged  ? 
What  would  determine  it  now  ?  What  class  of  men  in  the  Church 
held  the  most  power  ?  What  kinds  ?  What  effect  had  the  Church  on 
regard  for  labor?  Through  what  organization  did  she  work  this 
effect?  Describe  the  ideal  monk.  What  faults  in  human  nature 
were  attacked  by  this  ideal? 

5.   Stories  and  Extracts  Illustrative  of  Period  in  the 
Christian  Empire. 

a.    TJie  Founding  of  Monte  Cassino. 

At  the  command  of  Benedict,  the  Goths  of  Theodoric  "  armed 
themselves  with  axes  and  hatchets,  and  employed  their  robust 


THE    WEST    UNDER   BARBARIAN   CONTROL.  271 

strength  in  rooting  out  the  brushwood  and  clearing  the  soil, 
which,  since  the  time  of  Nero,  had  again  become  a  wilderness.  .  .  . 
Many  young  men  of  rich  and  noble  families  .  .  .  labored  with 
the  other  brethren  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  and  the  building 
of  the  monastery,  and  were  bound  to  all  the  services  imposed 
by  the  rule." 

b.  From  Sermon  of  St.  Eloi. 

"Do  not  consult  .  .  .  the  diviners,  or  the  sorcerers,  or  the 
enchanters,  for  any  cause,  even  for  illness  ;  pay  no  heed  to 
omens  or  to  sneezing ;  do  not  be  influenced  by  the  singing  of 
birds  when  you  hear  them  in  your  journeys.  .  .  .  Let  no  Chris- 
tian pay  heed  to  the  day  he  leaves  a  house,  or  that  upon  which 
he  returns  to  it.  ...  Let  no  one  seek  to  invoke  the  demons, 
such  as  Neptune,  Pluto,  Diana,  Minerva,  or  the  evil  genius.  .  .  . 
Let  no  one  observe  the  day  of  Jupiter  [Thursday]  as  a  day  of 
rest.  Let  no  Christian  make  vows  in  the  temples,  or  by  the 
side  of  fountains,  or  gardens,  or  stones,  or  trees." 

c.  The  Conversion  of  Clovis.      (Gregory  of  Tours.) 

"The  queen  did  not  cease  to  urge  the  king  to  acknowledge 
the  true  God,  and  to  put  away  his  idols  ;  but  he  could  in  no 
wise  be  moved  to  believe  on  these  things  until  at  length,  at  a 
certain  time,  a  war  was  set  on  foot  against  the  Germans  ;  in 
which  war  he  was  compelled  to  confess  what  before  he  had 
denied.  For  it  came  to  pass  that  as  the  two  armies  were 
fighting,  there  was  great  slaughter,  and  the  army  of  Clovis  was 
about  to  be  utterly  destroyed.  Clovis,  seeing  this,  was  grieved 
in  heart,  and  moved  even  to  tears,  and  raising  his  eyes  to 
heaven,  said,  '  O  thou  Christ  Jesus,  whom  ClotildaMeclares  to 
be  the  son  of  the  true  God,  thou  who  art  said  to  .  .  .  grant  the 
victory  to  those  who  put  their  trust  in  thee,  to  thee  I  make  my 
vows.  ...  If  thou  grant  me  the  victory  over  these,  mine 
enemies,  and  if  I  find  in  thee  that  power  which  those  who  qall 
on  thy  name  declare  that  they  have  proven,  I  will  believe  on 
thee,  and  will  be  baptized  in  thy  name.  For  I  have  called  upon 
my  gods,  but  I  find  that  they  are  far  from  assisting  me  ;  where- 


272 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


fore,  I  believe  that  they  have  no  power.'  .  .  .  Even  while  he 
was  saying  these  things,  the  Germans  turned  their  backs  and 
fled.  .  .  .  After  the  victory,  the  bishop  of  Rheims  was  sent  for, 
and  preached  the  gospel  to  Clovis,  who  consented  to  be  baptized 
if  his  people  would  follow." 

"But  as  he  came  into  the  presence  of  his  folk,  their  hearts 
were  moved  by  the  power  of  God,  so  that  before  he  spoke  they 


THE   LEGEND   OF   ST.   MARTIN   OP   TOURS. 
(From  a  piece  of  tapestry  of  the  thirteenth  century  in  the  Louvre.) 

1.  St.  Martin  shares  his  cloak  with  a  poor  man.  2.  Sees  in  a  dream  Jesus  Christ  clad 
with  this  half  of  his  cloak.  3.  The  saint's  baptism.  4.  He  brings  to  life  a  catechumen, 
who  had  died  without  baptism.  5.  He  recalls  to  life  a  slave,  who  is  first  represented  as 
hung  from  a  gibbet,  and  afterwards  standing  on  the  ground  and  giving  him  thanks. 
6.  St.  Martin  is  consecrated  Bishop  of  Toura.  7.  He  evokes  the  spectre  of  a  pretended 
martyr,  and  when  it  appears  and  avows  that  it  had  been  executed  for  its  crimes,  the 
chapel  is  demolished.  8.  He  gives  his  tunic  to  a  poor  man.  9.  He  brings  to  life  the 
eon  of  a  peasant.  10.  He  drives  out  the  evil  spirit  from  the  body  of  a  mad  cow. 
11.  Seeing  on  the  banks  of  a  river  some  birds  watching  to  catch  fish,  he  bids  them  fly 
away.  12.  Death  of  St.  Martin.  His  soul,  in  the  form  of  a  child,  is  being  borne  off  to 
heaven  by  two  angels. 


THE   WEST   UNDER    BARBARIAN   CONTROL.  273 

all  cried  out,  '  We  cast  away  our  false  gods,  O  righteous  king, 
and  we  are  ready  to  follow  the  true  God  ! '  " 

These  things  are  announced  to  the  priest,  who,  filled  with 
great  joy,  orders  the  baptistery  to  be  made  read}".  The  altar  is 
decked  with  richly  wrought  coverings  .  .  .  ;  the  baptismal  font 
stands  ready,  the  incense  pours  forth,  and  the  lighted  candles 
send  forth  sucli  sweet  odor  that  the  whole  church  is  filled  with 
heavenly  fragrance  ;  and  such  grace  does  God  grant  to  those 
standing  by  that  they  think  themselves  in  the  midst  of  the  per- 
fumes of  Paradise.  .  .  .  Therefore,  the  king,  having  acknowl- 
edged the  omnipotent  Godhead  of  the  Trinity,  is  baptized  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  anointed  with 
the  baptismal  oil,  and  sealed  with  the  sign  of  the  cross  of  Christ. 
More  than  three  thousand  of  his  army  are  baptized  with  him. 

d.  Oswald,  King  of  Northumberland. 

"  '  By  reason  of  his  constant  habit  of  praying  or  giving  thanks 
to  the  Lord,  he  was  wont,  wherever  he  sat,  to  hold  his  hands 
upturned  on  his  knees.'  As  he  feasted  with  Bishop  Aidan  by 
his  side,  the  thane,  or  noble  of  his  war-band,  whom  he  had  set 
to  give  alms  to  the  poor  at  his  gate,  told  him  of  a  multitude  that 
still  waited  fasting  without.  The  king  at  once  bade  the  untasted 
meat  before  him  to  be  carried  to  the  poor,  and  his  silver  dish  to 
be  parted  piecemeal  among  them.  Aidan  seized  the  royal  hand 
and  blessed  it.  '  May  this  hand,'  he  cried,  '  never  grow  old.' " 

e.  TJie  Abbot  and  the  Cart. 

' '  There  was  a  poor  man  whose  cart  had  been  overthrown 
before  the  very  gate  of  the  king ;  many  people  passed  in  and 
out,  and  not  only  did  they  not  lend  him  any  aid,  but  many  .  .  . 
trod  him  under  foot.  .  .  .  When  the  abbot  arrived,  he  saw  the 
impiety  which  these  children  of  insolence  committed,  and  imme- 
diately descending  from  his  horse,  he  held  his  hand  out  to  the 
poor  man,  and,  both  together,  they  raised  the  cart.  Many  of 
those  present,  seeing  him  all  soiled  with  mud,  mocked  and 
insulted  him,  but  he  cared  not,  following  with  humility  the 
humble  example  of  his  Master." 


274  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

/.   The  Crowning  of  Charlemagne.    (From  contemporary  monkish 
chronicles.) 

"  And  because  the  name  of  emperor  had  now  ceased  among 
the  Greeks,  and  their  empire  was  possessed  by  a  woman,  it 
seemed  both  to  Leo  the  pope  himself,  and  to  all  the  holy  fathers 
who  were  present  in  the  self -same  council,  as  well  as  to  the  rest 
of  the  Christian  people,  that  the}'  ought  to  take  to  be  emperor 
Charles,  king  of  the  Franks,  who  held  Rome  herself,  where  the 
Caesars  had  always  been  wont  to  sit,  and  all  the  other  regions 
which  he  ruled  through  Italy  and  Gaul  and  Germany ;  and 
inasmuch  as  God  had  given  all  these  lands  into  his  hand,  it 
seemed  right  that  with  the  help  of  God,  and  at  the  prayer  of 
the  whole  Christian  people,  he  should  have  the  name  of  emperor 
also.  Whose  petition  King  Charles  willed  not  to  refuse,  but 
submitting  himself  with  all  humility  to  God,  and  at  the  prayer 
of  the  priests,  and  of  the  whole  Christian  people,  on  the  day  of 
the  nativity  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  he  took  on  himself  the 
name  of  emperor,  being  consecrated  by  the  pope  Leo."  .  .  . 
"  For  this  also  was  done  by  the  will  of  God  .  .  .  that  the  heathen 
might  not  mock  the  Christians  if  the  name  of  emperor  should 
have  ceased  among  the  Christians." 

From  Letters  of  Alcitin  to  Charlemagne. 

"In  obedience  to  your  exhortation  and  wise  desire,  I 
apply  myself  in  serving  out  to  some  of  my  pupils  in  this 
house  [monastery]  of  Saint  Martin  the  honey  of  the  holy 
writings ;  I  essay  to  intoxicate  others  with  the  old  wine  of 
antique  studies  ;  one  class  I  nourish  with  tho  fruits  of  gram- 
matical science ;  in  the  eyes  of  another,  I  display  the  order  of 
the  stars."  .  .  . 

"I  have  schools  of  singers,  many  of  whom  are  already  suffi- 
ciently instructed  to  be  able  to  teach  others.  ...  I  have  also 
done  in  this  church  what  lay  in  my  power,  as  to  copying  books. 
...  I  have  roofed  the  great  church  of  this  town,  .,.  .  and  have 
reconstructed  a  portion  of  the  walls  ;  .  .  .  for  the  priests,  I  have 
constructed  a  cloister." 


THE   WEST   UNDER   BARBARIAN   CONTROL. 


275 


MOSAIC  OF  TENTH  CENTURY. 

From  Church  of  St.  John  in  Lateran  in  Rome;  it  represents  Christ  giving  the  spiritual 
power  to  Peter  with  the  keys,  and  the  temporal  power  to  Constantino,  with  the  standard. 

STUDY  ON   5. 

What  effect  would  the  monasteries  have  on  the  regard  for  labor  ? 
On  the  spread  of  knowledge  ?  What  sorts  of  useful  knowledge  would 
be  especially  favored  by  them  ?  What  studies  were  pursued  in  them  V 
What  in  the  Roman  Empire  and  the  Roman  Church  made  a  strong 
impression  on  the  barbarians,  and  thus  became  a  source  of  power  over 
them?  What  sort  of  Christians  were  Clovis  and  his  followers?  How 
did  they  regard  Christianity?  What  does  the  sermon  of  St.  Eloi 
indicate  about  the  beliefs  of  the  common  people  and  the  influence  of 


276  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

the  Church  ?  What  elements  of  character  entered  into  the  ideal  set 
by  the  Church  ?  Whence  did  Charlemagne  and  his  contemporaries 
believe  his  power  proceeded  ?  What  does  the  Lateran  mosaic  (p.  275) 
teach  us  of  the  ideas  of  the  time  ?  If  the  picture  on  p.  272  with  its 
explanation  were  all  that  we  possessed  to  tell  us  of  this  age,  what 
could  we  learn  from  it  ? 

In  General.  —  Of  what  is  the  Church  the  successor  in  Europe? 
What  are  its  bonds  of  union  ?  What  good  reason  for  the  persecution 
of  heresy  by  popes  and  emperors  ? 

6.  Extracts  Illustrative  of  the  First  Century  of  Moham- 
medanism. * 

a  From  the  Koran. 

"  God,  there  is  no  God  but  he,  the  living,  the  eternal. 
Slumber  doth  not  overtake  him,  neither  sleep  ;  to  him  belongeth 
all  that  is  in  heaven  and  earth.  .  .  .  He  knoweth  that  which  is 
past  and  that  which  is  to  come  unto  them,  and  they  shall  not 
comprehend  anything  of  his  knowledge,  but  so  far  as  he 
pleaseth.  His  throne  is  extended  over  heaven  and  earth,  and 
the  upholding  of  both  is  no  burden  to  him.  .  .  . 

"  There  is  no  piety  in  turning  your  faces  towards  the  east  or 
the  west,  but  he  is  pious  who  believeth  in  God,  and  the  last 
day,  and  the  angels,  and  the  Scriptures,  and  the  prophets  ; 
who  for  love  of  God  disburseth  his  wealth  to  his  kindred,  and 
to  the  orphans,  and  the  needy,  and  the  wayfarer,  and  those 
who  ask  ;  .  .  .  who  observeth  prayer,  and  payeth  the  legal  alms, 
and  who  is  of  those  who  are  faithful  to  their  engagements  .  .  . 
and  patient  under  ills  and  hardships,  and  in  time  of  trouble  ; 
these  are  they  who  are  just,  and  those  who  fear  the  Lord.  .  .  . 
Whoso  doeth  the  good  works  and  is  a  true  believer,  whether 
male  or  female,  shall  be  admitted  into  Paradise.  .  .  . 

"  Verily  we  have  revealed  unto  thee,  [O  Mohammed],  as  we 
revealed  unto  Noah  and  the  prophets  after  him,  and  as  we 
revealed  unto  Abraham  and  Ishmael  and  Isaac  and  Jacob  .  .  . 
and  Jesus  and  Job  and  .  .  .  Solomon.  .  .  . 

"  They  to  whom  we  have  given  the  book  of  the  Koran,  and 


THE   WEST    UNDER   BARBARIAN    CONTROL.  277 


278  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

who  read  it  with  its  true  reading,  they  believe  therein ;  and 
whoever  believeth  not  therein,  they  shall  perish.  .  .  . 

"Perform  the  pilgrimage  of  Mecca.  .  .  .  Make  provision  for 
your  journey ;  but  the  best  provision  is  piety ;  and  fear  me, 
O  ye  of  understanding.  It  shall  be  no  crime  in  you,  if  ye  seek  an 
increase  from  your  Lord,  by  trading  during  the  pilgrimage.  .  .  . 

"  They  will  ask  thee  concerning  wine  and  lots  [lottery,  gam- 
ing]. Answer,  In  both  there  is  great  sin,  and  also  some 
things  of  use  unto  men ;  but  their  sinfulness  is  greater  than 
their  use.  They  will  ask  thee  also,  what  they  shall  bestow  in 
alms.  Answer,  What  ye  have  to  spare.  .  .  . 

"  On  the  last  day,  every  soul  shall  find  the  good  which  it  hath 
wrought,  present ;  and  the  evil  which  it  hath  wrought,  it  shall 
wish  that  between  itself  and  that  were  a  wide  distance.  .  .  . 

"  What  befell  them  was  so  ordained.  .  .  .  God  giveth  life  and 
causeth  to  die.  .  .  .  Moreover,  if  ye  be  slain,  or  die  in  defence 
of  the  religion  of  God,  verily  pardon  from  God,  and  mercy,  is 
better  than  what  they  heap  together  of  worldly  riches.  .  .  . 

"  Fear  God  by  whom  ye  beseech  one  another;  and  respect 
women  who  have  borne  you,  for  God  is  watching  over  you.  .  .  . 
Take  in  marriage  of  ...  such  .  .  .  women  as  please  you  ;  two, 
or  three,  or  four,  and  not  more.  But  if  ye  fear  that  ye  cannot 
act  equitably  towards  so  man}-,  marry  one  only.  .  .  . 

"  Men  shall  have  the  pre-eminence  above  women,  because  of 
those  advantages  wherein  God  hath  caused  the  one  of  them  to 
excel  the  other.  .  .  .  Honest  women  are  obedient,  careful  in  the 
absence  of  their  husbands,  for  that  God  preserveth  them,  by 
committing  them  to  the  care  and  protection  of  the  men.  But 
those  whose  perverseness  ye  shall  be  apprehensive  of,  rebuke  ; 
and  remove  them  into  separate  apartments  and  chastise 
them.  .  .  . 

"...  Verily  those  who  disbelieve  our  signs,  we  will  surely 
cast  to  be  broiled  in  hell  fire  ;  so  often  as  their  skins  shall  be 
well  burned,  we  will  give  them  other  skins  in  exchange,  that 
they  may  taste  the  sharper  torment ;  for  God  is  mighty  and 
wise.  . 


THE   WEST   UNDER    BARBARIAN   CONTROL.  279 

"  But  for  him  who  drcacleth  the  tribunal  of  his  Lord  are  pre- 
pared two  gardens,  planted  with  shady  trees.  In  each  of  them 
shall  be  two  fountains  flowing.  In  each  of  them  shall  there  be 
of  every  fruit  two  kinds.  They  shall  repose  on  couches,  the 
linings  whereof  shall  be  of  thick  silk  interwoven  with  gold : 
and  the  fruit  of  the  two  gardens  shall  be  near  at  hand  to 
gather  .... 

"  Whosoever  fighteth  for  the  religion  of  God,  whether  he  be 
slain  or  be  victorious,  we  will  surely  give  him  a  great  reward. 
And  what  ails  you,  that  ye  fight  not  for  God's  true  religion, 
and  in  defence  of  the  weak  among  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren. .  .  . 

"  Verily  Christ  Jesus,  the  son  of  Mary,  is  the^apostlefof  God, 
and  his  Word,  which  he  conveyed  into  Mary,  and  alspirit  pro- 
ceeding from  Him.  Believe  therefore  in  God,  and  his  apostles, 
and  say  not,  There  are  three  Gods ;  forbear  this ;  it  will  be 
better  for  you.  God  is  but  one  God.^f 

The  prophet  strongly  enjoined  the  duty  of  kindness  to  slaves. 
".  .  .  He  who  beats  his  slave  without  fault,  or  slaps  him  on  the 
face,  his  atonement  for  this  is  freeing.  —  A  man  who  behaves 
ill  to  his  slave  will  not  enter  into  Paradise." 

b.    Abu-beJcr  to  the  /Soldiers  who  conquered  /Syria. 

"  This  is  to  acquaint  you  that  I  intend  to  send  the  true 
believers  into  Syria,  to  take  it  out  of  the  hands  of  the  infidels. 
And  I  would  have  you  know  that  the  fighting  for  religion  is  an 
act  of  obedience  to  God..  •  •  • 

"When  you  meet  with  your  enemies,  acquit  yourselves  like 
men,  and  do  not  turn  your  backs  ;  and  if  you  get  the  victory, 
kill  no  little  children,  nor  old  people,  nor  women.  Destroy  no 
palm-trees,  nor  do  any  mischief  to  cattle,  only  such  as  you  kill 
to  eat.  When  you  make  any  covenant  ...  be  as  good  as  your 
word.  As  you  go  on,  you  will  find  some  religious  persons  that 
live  retired  in  monasteries,  proposing  to  themselves  to  serve 
God  that  way  :  let  them  alone,  and  neither  kill  them  nor  destroy 
their  monasteries." 


280  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY- 

c.  Conditions  given  by  Omar  at  Conquest  of  Jerusalem. 

"  The  Christians  shall  enjc^  security  both  of  person  and 
property ;  the  safety  of  their  churches  shall  be,  moreover, 
guaranteed,  and  no  interference  is  to  be  permitted  on  the  part  of 
the  Mohammedans  with  any  of  their  religious  exercises,  houses, 
or  institutions  ;  provided  only,  that  such  churches,  or  religious 
institutions,  shall  be  open  night  and  day  to  the  inspection  of  the 
Moslem  authorities.  .  .  .  No  payment  shall  be  exacted  from  any 
one  until  after  the  gathering  in  of  his  harvest.  Mohammedans 
are  to  be  treated  everywhere  with  the  greatest  respect ;  the 
Christians  must  extend  to  them  the  rights  of  hospitality,  rise  to 
receive  them,  and  accord  them  the  first  place  of  honor  in  their 
assemblies.  The  Christians  are  to  build  no  new  churches,  con- 
vents, or  other  religious  edifices,  either  within  or  without  "the 
city,  or  in  any  other  part  of  the  Moslem  territory  ;  they  shall 
not  teach  their  children  the  Koran  :  but,  on  the  other  hand,  no 
one  shall  be  prevented  from  embracing  the  Mohammedan 
religion." 

d.  Omar's  Style  of  Life. 

"  He  rode  upon  a  red  camel,  with  a  couple  of  sacks  ;  in  one 
of  which  he  carried  .  .  .  barley,  rice,  or  wheat,  sodden  and  un- 
husked  ;  the  other  was  full  of  fruits.  Before  him  he  carried  a 
very  great  leather  bottle  (for  water)  ;  behind  him,  a  large 
wooden  platter.  Thus  furnished  and  equipped,  the  caliph  trav- 
elled, and  when  he  came  to  any  place  where  he  was  to  rest  all 
night,  he  never  went  from  it  till  he  had  said  the  morning 
prayer."  At  one  time  he  had  occasion  to  send  ambassadors  to 
Constantinople.  "  The  emperor  asked  them  what  sort  of  a 
palace  their  caliph  had  ;  they  said  it  was  made  of  mud.  '  And 
who,'  said  the  emperor,  '  are  his  attendants  ? '  '  The  beggars 
and  poor  people.'  'What  tapestry  does  he  sit  upon?'  'Jus- 
tice and  uprightness.'  'And  what  is  his  throne?'  'Absti- 
nence and  certain  knowledge.'  'And  what  is  his  treasure?' 
1  Trust  iii  God.'  " 


THE    WEST    UNDER    BARBARIAN    CONTROL.  281 

STUDY  ON   6. 

Make  a  list  of  the  points  of  Mohammedan  belief.  Of  the  require- 
ments of  its  worship.  Of  its  morality.  Note  all  the  points  of  re- 
semblance you  can  find  between  Christianity  and  Islam.  All  the 
points  of  difference.  What  is  the  essential  point  of  difference?  How 
is  Christianity  superior?  What  faults  in  Islam?  What  reason  can 
you  find  in  the  extracts  from  the  Koran  for  the  fighting  energy  of  the 
Saracen  ?  What  was  the  position  of  woman  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans? How  was  she  protected?  What  sorts  of  pleasure  and  what 
sorts  of  pain  are  represented  as  forming  the  essence  of  heaven  and 
hell? 

What  strikes  you  as  prominent  in  the  conditions  imposed  by  Omar 
and  Abu-bekr  ?  What  was  their  aim  in  conquest  ? 

7.    Extracts  and  Facts  Illustrative  of  Mohammedanism 
in  Eighth  and  Early  Ninth  Century. 

a.  Description  of  Bagdad  in  Time  of  Haroun-al-Eascliid. 
(Kremer.) 

The  city  was  built  with  great  bricks,  and  surrounded  by  a 
wall  a  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high  ;  at  a  good  distance  with- 
out this  wall  rose  a  second,  guarded  by  mighty  bastions,  and 
surrounded  by  a  moat  which  could  be  filled  with  water  at  pleas- 
ure. The  city  was  entered  by  four  massive  iron  gates,  through 
which  could  ride  horsemen  with  upright  lances,  and  each  of 
which  required  four  men  to  stir  it.  On  each  was  a  gilded  dome, 
where  commissioned  troops  were  on  constant  watch.  Within 
the  double  walls  was  an  open  space,  surrounded  by  arcades, 
which  served  as  barracks  for  the  ti'oops  of  the  palace  garden. 
Beyond  the  arcades  and  another  open  space  and  another  gate- 
way, stood  the  palace  of  the  caliph  and  the  chief  mosque. 

A  hundred  feet  was  fixed  for  the  breadth  of  the  chief,  and 
thirty  feet  for  that  of  the  side  streets.  In  the  suburbs  were 
great  tracts  of  cultivated  land  and  beautiful  gardens,  watered 
by  countless  canals  from  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The  most 
beautiful  of  these  plantations  were  full  of  vines  and  citron 
trees. 

On  the  western  bank  of  the  Tigris  rose  a  royal  castle,  tower- 


282  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTOKY. 

ing  over  all  that  part  of  the  city  with  its  walls,  its  balconies, 
and  domes.  Out  of  the  sea  of  houses  rose  countless  minarets ! 
into  the  air,  among  them  the  famous  "  green"  minaret,  covered 
with  shining  green  tiles.  Here,  too,  was  the  great  "green 
dome,"  a  hundred  and  sixty  feet  in  height. 

On  the  western  bank  of  the  Tigris  were  palaces,  baths, 
mosques,  bazaars,  and  among  these  splendid  buildings  lay  a 
confused  labyrinth  of  the  poor  houses  of  the  lower  classes. 
The  bazaars  were  rich  with  the  wares  of  Asia,  and  one  was 
especially  famous  for  its  costly  profusion  of  Chinese  silks. 

The  palace  of  the  Caliph  was  set  in  the  midst  of  large  and 
well-kept  gardens,  and  surrounded  by  countless  courts,  open 
halls,  balconies,  kiosks,  all  most  richly  adorned  by  splendid 
carpets  and  divans,  with  gold-embroidered  curtains  and  rich 
vases  of  gold  and  silver,  or  Chinese  porcelain.  In  the  gardens 
bloomed  the  finest  plants  of  Asia ;  within  the  inner  chambers 
were  richly-clad  and  handsome  slaves,  who  lived  as  befitted  the 
servants  of  a  prince. 

Our  picture  would  be  incomplete  without  a  visit  to  the  quays, 
which  stretched  for  miles  on  either  shore  of  the  river.  Whole 
fleets  were  here  at  anchor,  sea  and  river  boats  of  all  sizes,  from 
the  Chinese  junk  to  the  awkward  old  Assyrian  rafts.  There, 
too,  were  anchored  countless  ships  of  war,  and  between  these 
lay  the  pleasure-boats  of  the  caliphs  and  the  nobles,  glittering 
in  gold  and  brilliant  colors. 

b.    The  House  of  a  Wealthy  Arabian  of  Bagdad.     (Kremer.) 

His  doors  were  of  costly  woods,  inlaid  with  ebony  and  gold ; 
his  courtyard  was  paved  with  marbles,  often  laid  in  mosaic 
patterns,  and  cooled  by  an  ever-flowing  fountain.  His  halls 
were  finished  with  fine  stucco,  and  the  ceilings  bright  with 
intermingled  colors  of  the  arabesque  ornament.  Finest  rugs 
were  on  the  floors  and  costly  Chinese  vases  stood  about  the 
rooms.  .  .  .  Heavy  silken  curtains  in  clear,  rich  colors  hung 

1  See  picture  of  St.  Sophia ;  the  slender,  spirelike  parts  of  the  buildings 
are  minarets. 


THE   WEST    UNDER   BARBARIAN   CONTROL.  28^ 

before  doors  and  windows,  embroidered  in  gold  with  inscrip- 
tions and  arabesques.     Tapestries  stiff  with  gold  hung  on  the 


TYPICAL    ARABESQUE    ORNAMENT. 
(From  the  Alhambra.) 

walls,  while  from  the  centre  of  the  domed  ceiling,  hung  by  mas- 
sive chains  such  lamps  of  gold,  silver,  or  costly  crystal  as  the 
Greeks  were  wont  to  use. 


284  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

c.    Haroun-al-Rascliid  and  Mansour. 

"  One  of  the  intimates  of  Haroun-al-Raschid  relates  that 
one  day,  being  summoned  into  the  Caliph's  presence,  he  found 
him  in  a  very  gloomy  mood.  After  a  few  moments,  Haroun 
raised  his  head,  and  said,  '  Go  this  moment  and  take  from 
Mansur  ten  million  dirhems,  and  if  he  refuse  to  pay  them,  bring 
me  his  head  !  If  you  hesitate  and  fail  to  execute  my  command, 
I  swear  b}*  the  soul  of  my  father  that  I  will  decapitate  you  !  ' 
Salih  asked  what  he  was  to  do  in  case  Mansur  paid  part  at 
once,  and  gave  security  for  the  pa}7rnent  of  the  rest  on  the  fol- 
lowing day.  Haroun  answered,  '  If  this  very  day  he  fail  to 
pay  in  ready  money,  behead  him !  Let  me  hear  no  more  idle 
talk.'  Salih  felt  assured  from  this  that  the  Caliph  was  bent  on 
taking  Mansur's  life,  and  came  away  in  great  distress,  for  the 
person  threatened  was  a  friend  of  his  own,  and  one  of  the  most 
influential  persons  in  Bagdad.  However,  he  went  straight  to  his 
house,  and,  taking  him  aside,  told  him  what  had  happened. 
Mansur  threw  himself  at  Salih's  feet,  and  weeping,  said,  '  The 
Commander  of  the  Faithful  must  have  resolved  to  take  my  life, 
for  he  knows  well  enough  that  I  have  never  had  so  much 
money,  and  that  I  could  not  collect  it  in  a  lifetime ;  how, 
then,  am  I  to  do  so  in  one  day?'"  The  money  was,  however, 
raised,  and  Mansur  was  saved.  He  had  fallen  into  this  danger 
because  Haroun  suspected"  his  loyaltv,  and  because  he  had 
badly  treated  one  of  the  Caliph's  favorites. 

STUDY   ON    7. 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  fine  and  industrial  arts  known  to  the  Saracens. 
Of  the  sciences  and  branches  of  learning  pursued  among  them.  (See 
also  lists  of  period.)  Of  their  occupations.  Compare  this  civilization 
with  that  of  Europe  at  this  same  time.  How  is  it  superior?  What 
historical  sources  for  this  civilization  can  you  indicate?  What  facts 
indicate  that  such  were  its  sources?  To  what  things  are  the  names 
"damask"  and  "i;;orocco"  applied,  and  what  does  this  indicate? 
What  new  forms  of  construction  and  of  ornament  do  you  see  in 
the  pictures  on  pp.  277  and  283?  What  prominent  forms  mentioned 
in  the  description  of  Bagdad?  What  is  there  admirable  in  these 


THE   WEST   UNDER   BARBARIAN    CONTROL.  285 

forms?  What  element  of  beauty  seems  to  have  been  especially 
admired  in  ornament  ?  What  relation  between  the  Alhambra  orna- 
ment and  the  fact  that  the  Saracens  were  commanded  by  their  religion 
strictly  to  obey  the  second  commandment  ? 

What  'was  the  Mohammedan  form  of  government  ?  What  was  the 
relation  of  Church  and  State  ?  What  point  in  the  description  of  Bag- 
dad showed  this  relation  ? 


286  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


EUROPEAN    HISTORY,   814-1880. 

A.  Early  Mediaeval  Period:    Charlemagne  to  the  Crusades,  814-1096 

B.  Middle  Mediaeval  Period:  Crusading,  1095-1215. 

C.  Late  Mediaeval  Period :  Magna  Charta  to  Columbus,  1215-1492. 

D.  Renaissance  and  Reformation,  1492-1648. 

E.  Modern  Europe,   1648-1880. 

"  The  future  hides  in  it  "  But  heard  are  the  voices, 

Gladness. and  sorrow;  Heard  are  the  sages, 

We  press  still  thorow ;  The  worlds  and  the  ages,  — 

Naught  that  abides  in  it  '  Choose  well ;  your  choice  is 

Daunting  us,  —  onward  !  Brief  and  yet  endless.' 
#            *            *            * 

"  Here  eyes  do  regard  you 
In  eternity's  stillness; 
Here  is  all  fullness, 
Ye  brave,  to  reward  you ; 

Work,  and  despair  not."  —  GOETHE. 

"There's  a  divinity  that  shapes  our  ends,  rough-hew  them  how  we  will." 

—  SHAKSPEKE. 


A.     EAELT  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD,  CHARLEMAGNE    TO    THE 
CRUSADES,  814-1095. 

Chief  original  and  contemporary  authorities :  The  laws 
of  the  period  in  each  European  country,  and  the  decrees 
of  councils  and  popes ;  the  chronicles  of  the  monks,  espe- 
cially in  England  and  France ;  the  works  of  Arabic  his- 
torians and  poets. 

Chief  modern  authorities  in  English:  for  Europe  in 
general,  Gibbon,  Guizot,  Bryce,  Lacroix :  for  England, 
Stubbs,  Green  ;  for  Byzantine  Empire,  Finlay ;  for  the 
Church,  Milman. 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL   PEKIOD. 


287 


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EAKLY   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  291 

c.    In  England. 

Before  William  the  Conqueror,  the  organization  of  Eng- 
land was  similar  to  that  of  France,  with  the  following 
differences :  the  great  lords  and  bishops  formed  a  council 
of  wise  men,  or  Witenagemot,  with  whom  the  king  advised  in 
regard  to  war,  to  law,  and  the  grants  of  land  he  gave  from 
time  to  time ;  by  this  council  levies  were  ordered  for  war, 
laws  were  assented  to,  grants  confirmed.  These  great  lords 
and  bishops  were  in  England  called  king's  Thanes,  and 
that  which  was  called  a  fief  in  France  was  in  England 
named  a  Manor,  and  to  the  Seigniorial  Court  corresponded 
the  Manorial  Court  of  England. 

When  William  the  Conqueror  entered  England,  he  de- 
manded from  every  freeman,  irrespective  of  his  immediate 
feudal  lord,  an  oath,  to  "  be  faithful  to  King  William  within 
England  and  without,  to  join  him  in  preserving  his  lands 
and  honor  with  all  fidelity,  and  to  defend  him  against  his 
enemies."  In  a  council  held  shortly  after  the  Conquest, 
a  chronicle  tells  us  that  "all  the  landholders  of  substance 
in  England,  whose  vassals  soever  they  were  .  .  .  became  his 
[William's]  men,  and  swore  .  .  .  that  they  would  be  faith- 
ful to  him  against  all  others."  • 

STUDY  ON   I. 

What  must  a  man  possess  in  order  to  hold  power  during  this 
period  ?  What  kinds  ot  power  did  this  possession  give  ?  What  sort 
of  an  aristocracy  would  thus  develop  ?  In  what  country  is  there  now 
an  example  of  such  an  aristocracy?  Compai'e  the  power  of  the  king 
and  the  barons.  Of  the  emperor  and  the  pope.  Of  the  emperor  and 
the  king  of  Germany.  Throughout  the  feudal  organization,  what 
does  the  superior  give  the  inferior?  What  does  the  inferior  give  the 
superior  ?  What  effect  would  you  expect  this  system  to  have  on  the 
unity  and  strength  of  kingdoms?  On  justice  in  the  administration 
of  law?  On  trade?  On  manners?  On  liberty?  On  equality?  What 
was  the  political  unit  of  feudalism?  What  held  men  together  in  this 
unit?  What  class  in  England  seemed  to  have  more  power  than  the 


292 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


same  class  in  France  ?  What  great  change  introduced  by  William  the 
Conqueror  into  feudal  relations  in  England?  Whose  power  would 
thus  be  strengthened  ?  Who  was  the  "  immediate  "  lord  of  English- 
men? What  had  the  emperor  by  which  to  maintain  his  imperial 
power?  If  one  baron  did  wrong  to  another,  or  refused  to  abide  by 


SERFS  RECEIVING  ORDERS   PROM   THEIR  LORD   BEFORE   GOING  TO   WORK. 
Interior  of  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century ;  from  a  French  manuscript  of  fifteenth  century. 

the  judgment  of  his  peers,  what  was  the  only  way  left  to  gain  justice? 
What  effect  would  constant  foreign  warfare  have  upon  the  power  of 
the  king  and  the  unity  of  the  people  ?  Why  ?  Before  the  time  of 
Charlemagne,  we  noticed  that  law  was  personal ;  that  is,  that  a  man 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  293 

was  judged  by  the  laws  of  his  people,  whether  Roman,  Burgundian, 
Saxon ;  —  under  the  feudal  system,  what  fact  determines  the  law  by 
which  he  shall  be  judged  ? 

2.  Summary  of  Events,  814-1095. 

a.  In  the  Byzantine  Empire. 

About  900,  the  Magyars  or  Hungarians  (Turanians) 
attack  both  east  and  west ;  repulsed  by  the  German  em- 
perors, and  foiled  by  the  defences  and  gold  of  Constanti- 
nople, they  settle  in  Pannonia;  soon  after,  converted  to 
Christianity  by  the  missionaries  of  Rome,  they  become 
shepherds  and  farmers,  and  thus  begin  modern  Hungary. 

Continued  quarrels  of  Constantinople  and  Rome  over 
image-worship  and  other  questions  of  doctrine  and  prac- 
tice ;  these  quarrels  culminate  in  1054  in  the  great 
"  Schism  of  the  Church,"  which  divides  the  Christians  of 
Europe  and  Asia  into  two  communions ;  that  of  the  Greek 
Church,  to  which  the  Byzantines  and  their  converts  belong, 
and  that  of  the  Latin  Church,  to  which  the  Latin  and 
German-speaking  peoples  adhere. 

The  Saracens  seize  on  Sicily;  soon  after,  the  Normans 
invade  Greece,  and  wrest  Southern  Italy  from  the  East ; 
of  this,  together  with  Sicily,  of  which  they  dispossess  the 
Saracens,  they  form  the  Norman  Kingdom  of  Sicily. 
The  pope  confirms  the  new  kingdom,  and  the  Normans 
become  his  armed  allies  and  defenders  (1062).  The  Turks 
take  Asia  Minor  from  the  Empire. 

b.  In  Islam.1     (Eleventh  Century.) 

The  Spanish  Arabs  are  slowly  driven  back  towards  the 
south  by  the  Spanish  Christians,  and  lose  Toledo ;  the 
Asiatic  Arabs  are  conquered  by  the  Turks,  who  accept 

1  Islam  is  applied  to  the  whole  body  of  Mohammedans  and  their  gen- 
eral status  and  civilization,  as  Christendom  is  applied  to  the  peoples  and 
cultus  of  Europe. 


294  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Mohammedanism  as  their  faith;  a  third  caliphate  is 
founded  at  Cairo.  Christian  pilgrims  to  Jerusalem  meet 
constant  insult,  cruelty,  and  all  manner  of  persecution 
from  the  Turks. 

c.    In  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

At  Charlemagne's  death,  the  Empire  is  divided  among 

his  successors;  their  dissensions  and  wars  end  in  roughly 

denning  the  three  kingdoms  of   Italy,  Germany,  France. 

At  first,  the  imperial  title  belongs  to  the  king,  now  of  one 

i  and  then  another  land  ;  but  after  Otto  the  Great 

QQf> 

I  the  rulers  of  Germany  are  also  kings  of  Italy 
and  emperors  of  the  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE,  which  from 
this  time  on  practically  includes  Germany  and  Italy. 

During  this  period,  Germany  suffers  on  the  south-east 
from  the  Magyars  or  Hungarians,  on  the  north  from  the 
Danes  or  Northmen,  on  the  north-east  from  Slavs.  Against 
the  first,  the  emperors  found  the  Eastern-Mark,1  the  begin- 
ning of  modern  Austria;  against  the  second,  the  Mark  of 
Sleswig ;  against  the  third,  the  North-Mark,  the  beginning 
of  modern  Prussia  (through  Brandenburg).  These  marks 
are  given  into  the  charge  of  the  best  fighters  and  com- 
-manders  among  the  imperial  vassals.  (For  the  division  of 
the  Empire  among  its  various  rulers,  see  map,  pp.  316,  317.) 

In  the  beginning  of  Otto's  reign,  the  Dukes  of  Fran- 
coma,  Bavaria,  and  Lorraine  rise  against  him,  but  with 
the  help  of  French  nobles  who  are  in  revolt  against  their 
own  king,  he  subdues  them.  The  Danes  obtain  peace  on 
condition  of  the  baptism  of  their  king  ;  the  Bohemians,  on 
condition  of  ceasing  to  persecute  Christianity ;  the  Poles, 
on  condition  of  allowing  the  founding  of  a  bishopric. — In 

1  "  Mark  "  or  "  march  "  means  a  border  state  whose  defence  and  govern- 
ment is  particularly  strengthened  in  order  to  make  it  a  bulwark  against  & 
foreign  foe. 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  295 

1046,  three  candidates  at  once  claim  the  papal  chair ;  the 
emperor  deposes  them  all,  and  makes  a  German  bishop 
pope. 

Pope  Gregory  the  Seventh,  known  also  as 
GREGORY  THE  GREAT  and  as  Hildebrand,  insists 
on  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  throughout  Chris- 
tendom ;  this  causes  a  dissension  amounting  to  war  between 
Lombard  and  German  prelates,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
Italians  and  Normans  supporting  Hildebrand,  on  the  other; 
but  the  pope,  with  the  help  of  the  monks,  succeeds  in  mak- 
ing celibacy  the  rule  of  the  Church.  —  The  famous  quarrel 
over  "  lay  investiture  "  l  now  occurs  between  Hildebrand 
and  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  king  of  Germany.  The 
emperor  claims  the  right  of  investiture,  as  being  the  theo- 
retical owner  of  the  domains  of  the  bishops,  who  are  in 
their  relation  to  him  "  lords  spiritual,"  and  whose  lands 
amount  to  half  the  German  territory ;  the  pope  claims 
the  right  because  the  bishops  are  Church  officials,  and 
insists  upon  it,  lest  the  king  use  the  rich  abbey-lands  to 
reward  his  own  men.  Neither  pope  nor  emperor  yield 
the  point ;  the  pope  writes  to  Henry,  urging  him  to  "  pre- 
fer the  honor  of  Christ  to  his  own,  and  give  full  liberty  to 
the  Church,  the  Spouse  of  God  " ;  he  threatens  him  with* 
excommunication  unless  on  a  fixed  day  he  shall  appear  in 
Rome  to  be  judged  by  the  pope  for  all  his  offences. 
Henry,  in  answer,  calls  a  council  of  German  prelates,  from 
whom  he  asks  the  deposition  of  the  pope.  They  grant  it 
"  with  loud  unanimous  acclamation  "  ;  the  decision  is  sent 
to  Rome,  where  Gregory  sits  in  council  in  the  midst  of  his 
bishops ;  it  is  addressed,  "  To  the  false  monk,  Hildebrand." 
The  pope  immediately  passes  sentence  on  the  emperor: 
"  I  absolve  all  Christians  from  the  oaths  they  have  sworn 

1  "Lay  investiture"  simply  means   the  appointment  of  bishops  and 
other  prelates  to  their  offices  by  a  layman. 


296  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

or  may  swear  to  him,  and  forbid  all  obedience  to  him  as 
king."  The  Bishop  of  Utrecht,  on  the  king's  behalf,  ex- 
communicates the  pope,  but  soon  and  suddenly  dies. 
This  death,  with  other  causes,  turn  men  more  and  more 
against  the  excommunicated  emperor;  all  who  have  any 
talk  q?  dealing  with  him  are  themselves  declared  excom- 
municated. The  pope  commands  the  Germans  to  elect  a 
new  emperor  if  Henry  do  not  at  once  repent ;  the  Imper- 
ial Diet  accordingly  meets  to  choose  "  a  man  to  go  before 
them,  and  to  wage  the  war  of  the  Lord."  Henry,  desir- 
ous of  saving  his  kingdom,  goes  across  the  Alps  in  the 
dead  of  winter  to  seek  the  forgiveness  of  Hildebrand 
(1077).  The  pope  is  at  CANOSSA,  a  strong  fortress  of 
the  Apennines ;  in  its  outer  courtyard,  barefoot,  in  the 
white  robes  of  a  penitent,  for  three  days  and  nights  the 
emperor  awaits  the  pleasure  of  Gregory.  Even  this  grace 
is  not  given  until  the  emperor  promises  to  confess  himself 
"unworthy  of  the  royal  name  and  dignity."  At  last, 
admitted  to  the  papal  presence,  he  is  required  to  attend 
the  pope  where  and  when  Hildebrand  desires,  to  answer  the 
charges  of  his  people ;  if  cleared,  the  pope  will  restore  him 
to  imperial  power  ;  if  not,  Henry  is  to  remain  a  private  man. 

In  1095  the  Council  of  Clermont  is  called  by  Pope 
Urban  II.,  and  a  "  Holy  War,"  or  "  CRUSADE,"  of  Chris- 
tian Europe  is  declared  against  the  Turks  who  hold  Christ's 
Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem,  and  who  greatly  persecute 
the  pilgrims  who  come  from  all  parts  of  Europe  to  visit 
this  sacred  place,  and  to  expiate  their  sins  by  this  long 
and  dangerous  journey. 

(For  Schism  of  the  Church,  see  above.) 

STUDY  ON   2,  a,  b,  c. 

What  in  the  history  and  circumstances  of  the  East  and  the  West 
have  prepared  the  way  for  the  "  Schism  of  the  Church  "  ?  Why  is  it 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  297 

useless  for  the  pope  to  oppose  this  "  Schism  "  ?  How  does  the  history 
of  the  Turks  resemble  that  of  the  Teutons? 

What  events  strengthen  and  form  the  German  frontier?  What 
fact  in  their  origin  accounts  for  the  long  succession  of  strong  rulers 
in  Austria  and  Prussia?  In  order  that  new  peoples  may  enter  the 
empire,  what  is  necessary  ?  What  relation  between  this  fact  and  the 
imperial  organization  ?  Why  does  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  practically 
include  only  Germany  and  Italy?  What  or  who  has  the  chief  power 
in  this  empire?  Prove  it.  Some  time  ago  Bismarck  said,  "We 
will  not  go  to  Canossa";  explain  the  reference.  On  what  does 
the  papal  power  rest  ?  What  are  its  weapons?  On  what  the  imperial? 
What  is  shown  by  the  imperial  title  in  regard  to  the  imperial  office? 
What  ideal  does  Gregory  VII.  insist  upon  in  the  Church?  What  does 
he  make  the  central  power  in  its  organization? 

In  calling  the  peoples  of  Europe  to  a  crusade,  what  does  Pope 
Urban  assume  in  regard  to  their  comparative  allegiance  to  himself 
and  their  own  princes? 

d.    In  France. 

The  kings  are  often  fighting  against  the  counts  of 
Flanders,  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  the  princes  of  Brittany 
and  Aquitaine.  In  877  the  king,  needing  help  in  his  wars, 
grants  his  vassals  hereditary  possession  of  their  lands; 
the  nobles  compel  his  successor  to  confirm  the  grant,  and 
at  the  death  of  the  latter,  divide  the  realm  between  his 
two  sons. 

In  the  early  ninth  century,  Northmen  (Normans)  in- 
vade and  ravage  France ;  in  company  with  the  Duke  of 
Lorraine,  they  besiege  Paris ;  deserted  by  their  king,  the 
Parisians  choose  their  heroic  defender,  the  Count  of  Paris, 
as  their  monarch.  The  great  nobles  build  castles  to  de- 
fend themselves  and  their  folk  against  the  invaders ;  the 
Normans  continue  to  harry  the  land ;  at  last,  in  the  tenth 
century,  the  Frankish  king  sends  the  archbishop  of  Rouen 
to  tell  their  famous  war-chief  Hrolf  (Hollo)  that  if  he 
will  become  a  Christian,  acknowledge  the  king  of  France 
his  lord,  and  live  in  peace,  he  shall  have  the  dukedom  of 


298  SffUDIES   IN   GESTERAL  HISTORY. 

Normandy  as  his  hereditary  possession.     Hrolf  accepts  the 
offer,  and  his  followers  settle  Normandy. 

In  987,  the  line  of  Charlemagne  having  come  to  an  end 
in  the  person  of  an  inefficient  monarch,  the  nobles  choose 
Hugh  Capet  as  their  king,  and  from  him  all  the  succeed- 
ing kings  of  France  have  sprung.  This  election  is  con- 
firmed by  the  Archbishop  of  Rheims.  In  the  time  of 
Hugh,  there  are  fifty-five  feudal  units  in  France.  In  the 
eleventh  century  the  clergy  declare  the  "Truce  of  God," 
or  a  cessation  of  quarrels  and  warfare  from  Wednesday 
night  to  Monday  morning  of  every  week. 

e.   In  England. 

At  800  there  are  still  seven  different  English  kingdoms, 
often  hostile,  sgrnetimes  partially  united,  but  always  fight- 
ing Picts  and  Scots  to  the  north,  and  Welsh  to  the  west ; 
but  early  in  the  ninth  century,  Ecgbehrt,  king  of  the  West- 
Saxons,  becomes  overlord  of  all  the  other  kings,  forming 
the  so-called  "  Saxon  Heptarchy " ;  under  him  and  his 
successors  the  Northmen  constantly  invade  and  harry 
England,  and  settle  in  Northumbria,  East  Anglia,  and 
parts  of  Mercia. 

Under  ALFRED  THE  GREAT  the  struggle  of 
Englishmen  and  Northmen  still  continues;  Al- 
fred builds  a  fleet,  and  ends  invasion  for  a  time ; 
issues  a  body  of  English  law,  founds  new  monasteries,  has 
the  monastery-schools  teach  all  who  wish  to  attend  them, 
reading,  writing,  and  theology  ;  but  instruction  in  English 
is  to  precede  that  in  Latin. 

After  his  death  border-wars  with  Picts,  Scots,  and 
Welsh  continue,  as  well  as  constant  struggle  with  Danes, 
ending  at  1017  in  the  elevation  of  Danish  monarchs  to 
the  English  throne.  In  1042  the  English  kings  are 
restored,  and  Edward  the  (Jonfessor  becomes  king  under 


EARLY   MEDIEVAL   PERIOD. 


299 


the  leadership  of  powerful  nobles,  notably  Earl  Godwin, 
whose  daughter  he  marries. 

WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR,  Duke  of  Normandy, 
claims  a  right  to  the  English  throne  on  a  promise 
of  his  cousin,  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor; 
the  pope  declares 
in  his  favor,  and  en- 
joins him  to  bring 
England  into  due 
obedience  to  the 
Papacy  j  he  leads 
a  Norman  army 
into  England,  and 
at  the  battle  of  Sen- 
lac,  or  HASTINGS, 
makes  good  his 
claim.  The  Eng- 
lish king  is  support- 
ed by  his  earls  ;  but 
by  threatening  their 
domains,  and  forc- 


ENGLAND  about  600  A.D. 


=     Kelts   or  Britons. 

==    Teutons  Qr.AngleSjSaxans.Jutes,. 


ing  them  to  desert 

tViPi'v  mnnarnb    Wil  L  Kent.       II.  Sussex.       HI.  Wessex.       IV.  Essex. 

their  monarch,  VV  il-  y  Eagt  Anglia      ^  Mercia       vu  Northumbria> 

liam  gains    London,     chief  seat  of  Danish  settlement. 

and  the  English  nobles  choose  him  king. 


STUDY   ON   2,a-e. 

What  case  in  France  parallels  the  entrance  of  the  Hungarians  into 
the  European  commonwealth?  Name  two  points  of  resemblance. 
What  facts  can  you  find  in  c,  d,  and  e  to  confirm  your  statements  in 
regard  to  the  effects  of  feudalism  ?  Name  two  things  shown  by  the 
"Truce  of  God."  From  what  great  external  disturbance  does  the 
whole  of  civilized  Europe  suffer  during  this  period?  What  mark 
distinguishes  civilized  from  uncivilized  Europe? 


300 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Name  the  modern  countries  or  provinces  of  Europe  which  begin 
their  individual  existence  during  this  period.  At  whose  expense  does 
each  begin  it  ?  What  organization  is  steadily  increasing  its  power  in 
Europe?  What  sorts  of  power?  Give  two  proofs.  In  the  study  of 
organization,  we  noted  that  the  lords  and  bishops  apparently  had 
more  power  in  England  than  on  the  continent ;  what  events  would  neu- 
tralize this  power,  and  make  the  king  stronger  and  England  more 
united  ?  What  races  of  people  are  mingled  at  the  close  of  this  period 
in  France?  In  England?  In  Italy?  In  Spain?  In  the  Byzantine 
Empire  ? 

In  what  places  and  in  what  ways  do  Mohammedans  and  Christians 
come  into  contact  in  this  period  ?  What  facts  would  make  the  whole 
journey  to  Jerusalem  a  dangerous  one?  Contrast  the  journey  then 
and  the  same  journey  now. 

3.   List  of  Great  Names  of  the  Period. 

a.    Of  the  Ninth  Century. 


Birth  and  Circumstances. 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Language 
used. 


Alfred  the 
Great. 


Albumazar. 
Al  Mamun. 


English ;  king  of  Eng- 
land. 


Arabian,  of  Turkestan. 
Son  of  Haroun-al- 

Rashid ;  caliph  of 

Bagdad. 


Translator   of   History 
of  Orosius,  Bcethius' 
Consolation  of  Phil- 
osophy, and  Bede's 
Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory ;  establishes  a 
school  at  his  court 
for  young  nobles. 
(See2e.) 

Writes  on  astronomy. 

Causes  to  be  translated 
into  Arabic  the  manu- 
scripts sent  by  the 
Greek  emperor  to  his 
father;  sends  a  com- 
mission to  Cyprus  for 
books ;  erects  two 
observatories,  founds 
colleges,  has  a  degree 


English. 


Arabic. 
Arabic. 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD. 


SOI 


Birth  and  Circumstances. 


Deeds  and  Works 


Hincmar. 


John,  called 
the  Scot  or 
Erigena. 


Welsh  monk,  afterward 
bishop. 


Of  noble  French  fami- 
ly ;  monk ;  adviser  of 
the  French  court ; 
archbishop  of  Rheims. 


Irish  layman ;  is  said 
to  have  travelled  in 
the  East ;  head  of 
palace  school  of 
Frankish  kings. 


of  the  earth  meas- 
ured ;  calls  Syrian 
and  Egyptian  physi- 
cians to  his  court; 
author  of  theological 
and  critical  works ; 
causes  the  great  work 
of  Ptolemy  on  astron- 
omy and  geometry  to 
be  translated  from 
Greek  into  Arabic ; 
makes  very  accurate 
astronomical  tables. 

Author  of  Life  of  King 
Alfred(^);  assists  in 
the  king's  literary 
reforms. 

Author  of  theological 
and  political  writings ; 
defends  the  doctrine 
of  "Free  Will"; 
causes  a  splendid 
shrine  in  silverwork, 
adorned  with  statu- 
ettes, to  be  made  in 
his  church. 

Writes  on  philosophic 
and  theological  sub- 
jects; defends  abso- 
lute freedom  of  the 
will ;  is  considered 
heretical;  shows  ten- 
dencies toward  the 
Platonic  philosophy ; 
makes  translations 
from  the  Greek. 


802 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Name. 

Birth  and  Circumstances. 

Deeds  and  Works. 

Language 
used. 

Razi,  or  Rhazes. 

Arab  doctor,  from 

Author  of  works  on 

Arabic, 

Khorassan. 

medicine  and  chemis- 

trans- 

try ;  director  of  hos- 

lated 

pital  at  Bagdad; 

into 

seeks  for  the  "  Water 

Latin. 

of  Life  "  ;  his  medi- 

cal works  largely 

founded  on,  or  bor- 

rowed from,  Galen 

and  Hippocrates. 

b.    Of  the  Tenth  Century. 


Albategni, 
"  Arabian 
Ptolemy." 


Dunetan,  St. 


Gerbert 
(Sylvester  II.) 


Arab  of  Mesopotamia 
worked  at  Rakka 
and  at  Antioch. 


Of  noble  Saxon  fami- 
ly ;  hermit ;  King 
Edgar's  prime  min- 
ister, and  archbishop 
of  Canterbury. 

French  shepherd-boy ; 
monk ;  archbishop  of 
Rheims ;  teacher  of 
a  French  king  and 
German  emperor; 
pope. 


Has  charge  of  an  astro- 
nomical observatory 
at  Rakka,  near  the 
Euphrates ;  advances 
the  knowledge  of 
astronomy  beyond 
previous  observers, 
including  Ptolemy, 
whom  he  diligently 
studied. 

Reforms  English 
monasteries  on  the 
basis  of  Benedictine 
rule ;  forbids  the 
marriage  of  the  clergy. 

Studies  mathematics, 
astronomy,  medicine, 
mechanics  with  the 
Spanish  Arabs ;  brings 
the  Arabic  numerals 
into  France »  famous 
mechanic ;  first  ap- 
plies weight  as  a  mo- 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD. 


303 


Name. 

Birth  and  Circumstances. 

Deeds  and  Works. 

Language 
used. 

tor  power  to  clocks  ; 

establishes  a  work- 

shop for  the  manufac- 

ture of  organs,  in  the 

monastery  of  which 

he  is  abbot;  is  thought 

a  magician  ;  author  of 

letters  and  of  philo- 

sophical, mathemati- 

cal, and  ecclesiastical 

works. 

Hugh  Capet. 

Son  of  Duke  of  France. 

Founder  of  French 

French 

monarchy.     (See  2.) 

Otto  I.  (Otho), 

Son  of  the  Saxon  duke  ; 

Establishes  relation  of 

Ger- 

the Great. 

king  of  Germany  and 

Germany  to  Holy 

man. 

emperor. 

Roman  Empire.  (See 

2.) 

Rollo  (Hrolf). 

Norwegian  pirate. 

Conqueror  and  first 

#  #   * 

duke  of  Normandy. 

(See  2.) 

c.  Names  of  Eleventh  Century. 


Albucasis. 


Alhazen. 


Anselm. 


Arab  of  Cordova; 
physician. 


Arab  of  Bassorah  (near 
ancient  Babylon) ; 
teaches  and  studies 
in  Cairo. 

Italian  of  Piedmont ; 
of  noble,  wealthy 
family;  studies  in 
Norman  monastery ; 


Writes  on  anatomy  and 
physiology;  invents 
new  surgical  instru- 
ments and  operations. 

Makes  important  dis- 
coveries in  optics ; 
thorough  student  of 
Ptolemy. 

Scholastic,  —  that  is,  he 
tries  to  make  the 
truths  of  religion 
clear  to  the  reason ; 


304 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 


Birth  and  Circumstances. 


Deeds  and  Works. 


Language 
used. 


Avicenna, 
"Prince  of 
Doctors." 


archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. 


Persian;  Mohammedan, 


Cid(RuyDiaz). 


Of  noble  Spanish  birth ; 
warrior. 


writes  on  transubstan- 
tiation;1  opposes 
nominalism ; 2  makes 
his  monastery  a  fa- 
mous seat  of  learning. 

Doctor  in  several 
Asiatic  courts ;  writes 
a  medical  encyclo- 
pedia which  becomes 
the  basis  of  medical 
science  in  Europe  for 
six  or  seven  centuries  ; 
travels  through  the 
East  to  find  new 
medicines. 

Famous  Christian 
champion  in  the  wars 
of  the  Spaniard  and 
the  Moor ;  afterward 
a  "  free  lance,"  fight- 
ing with  his  followers, 
now  for  one  and  now 
another  prince,  Mos- 
lem or  Christian ; 


Arabic. 


Span- 
ish. 


1  Transubstantiation  is  the  doctrine  which  teaches  that  the  bread    and 
wine  of  the  Holy  Communion  are  by  a  miracle  turned  into  the  living  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  (Real  Presence). 

2  Nominalism   teaches   that  general  terms  are  but  abstractions  of   the 
mind,  simple  names ;  while  particular  objects  and  actions  alone  possess 
reality ;  thus  virtue  is  but  a  name  used  for  convenience  to  group  together 
individual  virtuous  actions,  which  are  realities.     The  Realists,  on  the  other 
hand,  of  whom  Anselm  was  greatest,   insisted   that  such  general    terms 
named  real  essences,  and  that  virtue,  for  instance,  existed  as  an  actual 
substance,  quite  apart  from  any  individual  action.     Since  the  Nominalists 
gave  great  prominence  to  the  separate  and  real  existence  of  the  three 
persons  of  the  Trinity,  thus  tending  toward  polytheistic  views,  their  doc- 
trines were  condemned  as  heretical. 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD. 


305 


Name. 

Birth  and  Circumstances. 

Deeds  and  Works. 

Language 
used. 

after  his  death  be- 

comes the  hero  of 

many  stories  and 

poems. 

Robert 
Guiscard 
(Wiscard). 

Younger  son  of  a  petty 
Norman  baron. 

Conqueror  of  Southern 
Italy  and  Sicily. 
(See  2.) 

Nor- 
man- 
French. 

Hildebrand, 
Gregory  VII. 

Son  of  a  carpenter  ; 
afterwards  pope. 

See  2  c. 

Latin. 

Lanfranc. 

Italian  of  governing 
class;  studies  at 

Writes  on  transubstan- 
tiation  ;  defends  the 

Latin. 

Paris  ;  archbishop  of 
Canterbury. 

"  real  presence'." 

Urban  II. 

French  ;  monk  ,  cardi- 
nal-bishop ;  pope. 

Orator  ;  proclaims  the 
first  crusade. 

Latin  ; 
French. 

William  the 
Conqueror. 

Duke  of  Normandy. 

See  2  e. 

Nor- 
man- 
French. 

William  of 
Jumieges. 

Norman;  monk. 

Author  of  History  of 
the  Normans. 

Latin. 

William  of 
Poitiers. 

Norman  ;  companion  of 
William  the  Con- 

Author of  Life  of 
William  the 

Latin. 

queror  ;  soldier  and 
chaplain. 

Conqueror. 

306 


STUDIES   IX   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL   PEEIOD.  307 


DETAIL  OP  DUCAL  PALACE,  VENICE. 


308 


STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Famous  Foundations  and  Works  of  the   Time,  not  named   in 
the  Lists. 

Ducal  palace  and  church  of  St.  Mark's  built  at  Venice, 
by  architects  and  artists  from  Constantinople,  under  direc- 
tion of  the  doge,  or  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  Venetian 
republic.  —  Toward  the  tenth  century  cotton  or  linen  paper 
is  brought  into  Europe  from  Greece  by  the  Venetians. 
—  Cathedral  of  Pisa,  with  its  leaning  bell-tower,  built; 
many  Greek  fragments  inserted.  —  Medical  schools  estab- 


PACADE  OP  DUOAL  PALACE.  VENICE 


lished  at  Salerno  and  Monte  Cassino,  the  former  being 
founded  by  an  Italian  pupil  of  Avicenna,  who  had  spent 
thirty-nine  years  in  the  East. 

German  organ-makers  very  famous  ;  an  organ  with  key- 
board invented  towards  the  close  of  the  period.  —  Hospitals 
and  other  houses  of  relief  for  the  unfortunate  founded  in 
the  eleventh  century,  under  encouragement  of  the  empe- 
ror, in  various  parts  of  Germany. 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  309 

English  homilies  are  collected  and  preserved  by  Alfred 
the  Great.  — •  The  English  annals  are  more  regularly  kept 
by  the  monks  of  Winchester  and  Worcester.  —  Medical 
recipes  and  lists  of  plants  and  animals  translated  from 
Greek  and  Latin  into  English.  —  Survey  of  England  is 
made  and  recorded  in  Domesday  Book  by  William  the 
Conqueror. 

French  annals  regularly  kept  by  the  monks.  —  Manu- 
factures of  tapestry  for  church  decoration  established  at 
several  French  monasteries ;  the  famous  Bayeux  tapestry, 
representing  the  Battle  of  Hastings,  executed  under  direc- 
tion of  Matilda,  wife  of  William  the  Conqueror.  —  Beauti- 
ful church  in  Caen  built  by  William  the  Conqueror,  in 
gratitude  for  his  victory  at  Hastings. 

The  Pseudo-Isidorean,  or  False  Decretals,  appear  in 
the  ninth  century,  a  corrupt  and  unreliable  collection 
of  canon  law  made  by  a  French  ecclesiastic,  but  never- 
theless accepted  by  the  Church  for  several  centuries ; 
their  general  tendency  is  to  strengthen  the  power  of  the 
pope. 

In  Cairo,  Egypt,  fine  mosques  are  built,  and  a  library 
established  of  100,000  volumes,  which  are  freely  lent  out 
to  the  citizens.  —  In  Bagdad,  an  observatory  is  erected 
and  a  college  founded,  which  upwards  of  6000  students 
attend.  —  In  Spain,  the  Arabs  have  as  many  as  eighty  col- 
leges and  seventy  public  libraries. 

STUDY  ON  3. 

What  influence  is  felt  by  the  west  of  Europe  during  this  period  ? 
What  are  the  centres  of  intellectual  impulse?  What  countries  are 
beginning  to  have  an  independent  intellectual  civilization  ?  What  fact 
or  facts  mark  this  independence  ?  Among  whom  is  this  civilization 
most  advanced  ?  What  directions  does  it  take  ?  Proofs.  What  traces 
of  secularization  appear  in  the  Church  ?  Of  revolt  against  her?  (Cf. 
2.)  What  proofs  that  she  is  still  the  great  intellectual  and  civilizing 


310  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

power  of  the  period?  That  her  spirit  is  essentially  democratic?  How 
is  she  still  civilizing  Europe?  What  reason  is  there  in  the  events  of 
this  period  for  its  small  amount  of  literary  and  artistic  production  ? 
What  race  produces  the  warriors  and  conquerors  of  the  epoch?  What 
race  produces  the  scientific  men  ?  What  historic  reason  can  you  give 
for  this  latter  fact  ?  What  reason  can  you  give  for  the  former  ?  What 
can  you  prove  one  great  source  of  Moorish  civilization  to  have  been  ? 
What  influences  do  you  see  embodied  in  St.  Mark's  ?  In  the  ducal 
palace?  What  do  you  find  beautiful,  and  what  characteristic  or 
original,  in  each  of  these  buildings  ? 

4.  Extracts  and  Stories  Illustrative  of  European  Life 
of  the  Period. 

a.  The  Pope  and  the  King  of  Bulgaria. 

In  the  ninth  century,  Bulgaria  was  converted,  through  the 
influence  of  a  Christian  princess,  whose  husband  wanted  her 
God  on  his  side  in  war.  His  subjects,  however,  revolted  in 
favor  of  the  old  religion,  and  the  king  took  cruel  vengeance 
on  them;  thereupon,  the  pope  writes  him  that  he  "is  now 
under  the  rule  of  a  more  merciful  God,  to  whom  such  wide- 
spread slaughter  is  not  pleasing."  Apostates  from  the  faith  are 
to  receive  no  toleration,  but  God  is  to  judge  those  who  are  with- 
out the  Church.  The  pope  commands  him  no  longer  to  use  the 
old  national  sign  of  the  horsetail,  but  the  cross,  when  he  goes 
forth  to  battle ;  and  instead  of  using  enchantments,  songs, 
and  auguries  before  a  fight,  his  soldiers  are  to  go  to  church, 
confess,  perform  good  acts,  such  as  opening  .prisons,  giving  to 
the  poor,  and  freeing  slaves.  He  forbids  polygamy,  and  advises 
that  the  king  allow  his  wife  to  eat  with  him. 

b.  JSyrhtnoth's  Death   in  a  Battle   of  the  English   against  the 

Danes  (991). 

Byrhtnoth,  the  Saxon,  brought  his  force  into  battle-array, 
and  dismounting,  took  his  place  among  his  thanes.  On  the 
opposite  shore  of  the  river  stood  the  herald  of  the  Viking-Danes, 
who  spoke  with  strong  and  threatening  voice  :  "  '  Active  sea- 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  311 

men  send  me  to  thee ;  they  bid  me  say  to  thee,  that  thou  must 
quickly  send  rings  for  safety ;  and  it  is  better  for  you  that  ye 
buy  off  this  spear-rush  with  tribute  than  that  we  share  such 
hard  fight.  If  thou  who  art  the  richest  here  dost  decide  that 
thou  wilt  redeem  thy  people,  wilt  give  the  seamen  money  at 
their  own  prizing,  in  exchange  for  peace,  then  we  will  enter  our 
ships  with  the  treasures,  go  afloat,  and  keep  peace  with  you.' 
Byrhtnoth  held  fast  his  shield,  swung  his  slender  ash  aloft,  and 
answered  with  scorn  and  derision:  '  Hearest  thou,  seafarer, 
what  this  folk  saith?  They  will  give  you  spears  for  tribute, 
the  poisonous  lance-point,  and  the  old  sword,  war- trappings 
that  are  not  good  for  you  in  battle.  Messenger  of  the  water- 
men, announce  again,  say  to  thy  people  warlike  words  :  A  noble 
earl  stands  here  with  his  band,  who  will  protect  this  inheritance, 
^Ethelred's  my  prince's  country,  folk  and  lands.'  .  .  .  Then 
the  time  was  come  when  those  consecrated  to  death  should  fall ; 
.  .  .  spears  flew  from  the  hands  ;  the  bow  was  busy  ;  the  shield 
received  the  point ;  bitter  was  the  rage  of  battle  ;  warriors  fell. 
On  both  sides  lay  the  young  fighters."  Byrhtnoth  himself  was 
sorely  wounded.  "  But  the  gray  battle-hero  still  cheered  on  the 
youths  ;  his  feet  refused  to  serve  him  ;  he  looked  toward  heaven 
and  said  :  '  I  thank  Thee,  Ruler  of  Peoples,  for  all  the  joys  that 
I  have  had  in  the  world.  Now,  mild  Creator,  I  have  most  need 
that  thou  grant  my  spirit  good,  that  my  soul  .  .  .  may  pass  with 
peace  into  thy  power.'  .  .  .  Then  the  heathen  struck  him  down. 
.  .  .  JEthelred's  earl,  the  people's  prince,  had  fallen  ;  all  of  his 
kindred  saw  that  their  lord  lay  slain.  The  proud  warriors 
rushed  up,  willed  either  to  avenge  the  dear  one  or  to  yield  their 
lives.  .^Elfric's  son  .  .  .  exhorted  them.  He  said  :  '  Never 
shall  the  thanes  reproach  me  among  the  people,  that  I  would 
desert  this  host,  and  seek  my  country,  now  that  my  prince  lies 
slain  in  battle.  That  is  my  greatest  grief :  he  was  both  my 
kinsman  and  my  loi'd.'  Then  he  strode  forward,  thinking  of 
blood-vengeance.  .  .  .  Swinging  his  lance,  he  bade  all  heroes 
avenge  .  .  .  Byrhtnoth  :  '  Never  may  he  hesitate  who  thinketh 
to  avenge  his  lord  in  the  people,  nor  care  for  his  life.'  .  .  . 


312  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

The  kinsmen  began  a  hard  fight ;  they  prayed  God  it  might 
be  granted  them  to  avenge  their  kin  and  chief,  and  to  work 
slaughter  among  their  enemies.  .  .  .  Byrhtwold,  the  aged  com- 
rade, spoke  as  he  grasped  fast  his  shield  and  shook  his  ash :  .  .  . 
'  Courage  should  be  the  greater,  the  more  our  forces  lessen  ; 
here  lieth  our  prince  cut  down,  the  brave  one,  slain  in  the  dust. 
...  I  am  old  in  days  ;  I  will  not  go  away,  but  I  think  to  lie 
by  mv  lord's  side  ;  I  will  lie  by  such  a  beloved  warrior.' " 

c.  From  Anselm. 

"  Whether  that  is  true  which  the  universal  Church  believes 
with  the  heart  and  confesses  with  the  mouth,  no  Christian  can 
be  permitted  to  place  in  question ;  but,  while  holding  fast  to  it 
without  doubting,  and  loving  and  living  for  this  faith,  he  may 
and  should  search  in  humility  for  the  grounds  of  its  truth.  If  he 
is  able  to  add  to  this  faith,  intelligence,  let  him  thank  God ;  if 
not,  let  him  not  turn  against  his  faith,  but  bow  his  head  and 
worship." 

d.  From  John  Scotus,  or  Erigena. 

"Authority  is  derived  from  reason,  and  not  reason  from 
authority,  and  authorit}r  which  is  not  acknowledged  by  reason 
seems  valueless.  .  .  .  We  should  not  allege  the  opinions  of  the 
holy  fathers,  .  .  .  unless  it  be  necessary  thereby  to  strengthen 
arguments  in  the  eyes  of  men,  who,  unskilful  in  reasoning, 
yield  rather  to  authority  than  to  reason.  ...  I  am  not  so  fear- 
ful of  authority,  and  I  do  not  so  dread  the  rage  of  minds  of 
small  intelligence  as  to  hesitate  to  proclaim  aloud  the  things 
which  reason  clearly  unfolds." 

******* 

"What,  then,  is  the  object  of  philosophy,  but  to  set  forth  the 
rules  of  true  religion,  whereby  we  rationally  seek  and  humbly 
adore  God,  the  first  cause  and  sovereign  of  all  things?  From 
thence  it  follows  that  true  philosophy  is  true  religion,  and  con- 
versely, that  true  religion  is  true  philosophy." 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  313 

e.    Letter  from  the  Pope  to  the  French  King  concerning  Scotus 
Erigena. 

"  It  has  been  reported  to  our  apostleship  that  a  certain  John, 
of  Scotch  origin,  has  lately  translated  into  Latin  the  work  which 
the  blessed  Dionysius  wrote  in  the  Greek  language.  .  .  .  This 
book  ought  to  have  been  sent  to  us  according  to  custom,  and 
approved  by  our  judgment ;  the  more  so,  that  this  John  .  .  .  has 
not  always,  it  is  everywhere  said,  been  sound  in  his  views  upon 
certain  subjects.  We  recommend,  therefore,  very  strongly, 
that  you  cause  the  said  John  to  appear  before  our  apostleship, 
or,  at  least,  that  you  do  not  permit  him  any  longer  to  reside 
at  Paris  in  the  school  of  which  he  is  stated  for  a  long  time  to 
have  been  the  chief,  in  order  that  he  may  no  longer  mingle  his 
tares  with  the  wheat  of  the  holy  word ;  giving  poison  to  those 
who  seek  for  bread." 

/.  From  Ordericus  Vitalis,  on  the  State  of  Normandy,  A.D.  1094. 

' '  At  this  time,  sharp  hostilities  took  place  between  William 
de  Breteuil  and  Ascelin  Goel  [two  powerful  Norman  barons]  ; 
.  .  .  there  was  a  great  feud  between  them,  and  each  tried  to 
injure  the  other. 

"  In  the  month  of  February,  Ascelin  called  to  his  aid  Richard 
de  Montfort  and  the  retainers  of  King  Philip,  and  engaging  in 
battle  with  William  .  .  .  defeated  him  and  made  him  a  captive. 
.  .  .  Elated  with  the  victory,  he  became  exceedingly  arrogant, 
and  cruelly  tormented  ...  his  captives.  He  kept  them  in  close 
confinement  in  his  castle,  .  .  .  and  often,  in  the  severest  weather, 
.  .  .  exposed  them  in  their  shirts,  well  soaked  in  water,  at  a 
window  in  the  highest  stage  of  the  tower  to  the  blasts  of  the 
north  or  south  winds,  until  their  onl}'  covering  was  frozen  into 
a  sheet  of  ice  around  their  bodies.  At  length,  by  the  interfer- 
ence of  friends,  peace  was  concluded,  and  William  was  let  out 
of  prison  ;  .  .  .  but  the  peace  was  of  short  duration. 

"The  year  following,  William  .  .  .  renewed  his  hostilities, 
and  established  ...  a  garrison  in  the  convent  of  monks,  which 


814  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

Robert  d'lvri  had  founded  in  honor  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Upon 
this,  Goel,  who  held  the  castle,  led  a  body  of  troops  to  the 
convent.  .  .  .  William  de  Breteuil  made  his  escape  with 
more  difficulty,  and  ...  at  length  engaged  to  pay  Philip, 
king  of  France,  seven  hundred  livres,  as  well  as  large  sums  to 
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  ...  if  they  would  faithfully  succor 
him. 

"  In  consequence,  during  Lent,  the  king  of  France  and  the 
duke  of  Normandy  laid  siege  to  Breval.  .  .  .  The  priests  and 
their  parishioners  brought  their  banners,  and  the  abbots,  assem- 
bling their  vassals,  joined  the  besieging  array.  .  .  .  Goel  was  a 
most  desperate  freebooter,  daring  and  crafty,  and  a  violater  of 
churches  .  .  .  who  till  that  time  had  been  used  to  laugh  at  kings 
and  dukes  in  his  secure  retreat.  ...  He  had  noble  and  brave 
kinsmen,  by  whose  aid  he  had  fortified  the  castle  of  Breteuil 
.  .  .  and  with  their  courage  and  succour  he  had  manfully  sus- 
tained the  burden  of  such  frequent  hostilities.  But  now  finding 
that  so  many  great  and  valiant  princes  were  firmly  leagued 
against  him,  he  sued  for  peace." 

STUDY   ON   4. 

What  changes  in  the  dii-ection  of  civilization  does  Christianity 
encourage  in  Bulgaria?  What  is  evidently  the  aim  of  Danish  invasion 
as  shown  in  6?  What  does  this  fact  indicate  incidentally  of  the  com- 
parative prosperity  of  England  just  before  the  invasion  ?  What  spirit 
shown  by  Byrhtnoth's  answer  to  the  Danes  ?  What  feeling  or  senti- 
ment? What  do  we  know  of  Byrhtnoth's  religious  belief?  Of  his 
religious  feeling?  What  sentiment  shown  by  his  followers?  What 
barbarian  organization  appears  in  this  battle  ?  What  spirit  shown  by 
Byrhtwold?  Make  a  list  of  the  English  virtues  displayed  in  this 
story. 

What  seems  to  be  the  aim  of  Erigena?  What  his  spirit?  What 
difference  between  his  attitude  and  that  of  Anselin?  What  resem- 
blance ?  What  right  does  the  pope  claim  in  regard  to  the  thought  of 
Europe  ?  What  harm  can  heresy  do  to  the  Church  ?  What  conclusions 
previously  made  in  regard  to  the  feudal  system  are  confirmed  by  the 
chronicle  of  Ordericus  Vitalis? 


EARLY   MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD.  315 

5.  Facts  and  Stories  Illustrative  of  Islam  during  this 
Period. 

a.    The  Greek  Embassy  to  Bagdad. 

"In  the  beginning  of  .  .  .  917,  two  ambassadors  from  the 
Greek  emperor  .  .  .  arrived  in  Bagdad  on  a  mission  to  its 
caliph,  bringing  an  abundance  of  costly  presents.  .  .  .  The 
caliph,  having  appointed  a  day  on  which  he  would  receive  them, 
ordered  that  the  courts  and  passages  and  avenues  of  his  palace 
should  be  filled  with  armed  men,  and  that  all  the  apartments 
should  be  furnished  with  the  utmost  magnificence.  A  hundred 
and  sixty  thousand  armed  soldiers  were  arranged  in  ranks  in 
the  approach  to  the  palace  ;  next  to  these  were  the  pages  of 
the  closets,  and  chief  eunuchs,  clad  in  silk  and  with  belts  set 
with  jewels,  in  number  seven  thousand,  —  four  thousand  white, 
and  three  thousand  black, — besides  seven  hundred  chamber- 
lains ;  and  beautifully  ornamented  boats  of  various  kinds  were 
seen  floating  on  the  Tigris  hard  by.  The  two  ambassadors 
passed  first  by  the  palace  of  the  chief  chamberlain,  and,  aston- 
ished at  the  splendid  ornaments  and  pages  and  arms  which  they 
there  beheld,  imagined  that  this  was  the  palace  of  the  caliph. 
But  what  they  had  se^n  here  was  eclipsed  by  what  they  beheld 
in  the  latter,  where  they  were  amazed  by  the  sight  of  thirty- 
eight  thousand  pieces  of  tapestry  of  gold-embroidered  silk 
brocade,  and  twenty-two  thousand  magnificent  carpets.  Here, 
also,  were  two  menageries  of  beasts,  by  nature  wild,  but  tamed 
by  art,  and  eating  from  the  hands  of  men  :  among  them  a  hun- 
dred lions,  each  with  its  keeper.  They  then  entered  the  palace 
of  the  Tree,  enclosing  a  pond  from  which  rose  the  Tree :  this 
had  eighteen  branches,  with  artificial  leaves  of  various  colors, 
and  with  birds  of  gold  and  silver  [or  gilt  and  silvered]  of  every 
kind  and  size  perched  upon  its  branches,  so  constructed  that 
each  of  them  sang.  Thence  they  passed  into  the  garden,  in 
which  were  furniture  and  utensils  not  to  be  enumerated ;  in  the 
passages  leading  to  it  were  suspended  ten  thousand  gilt  coats  of 
mail.  Being  at  length  conducted  before  the  caliph  himself, 
they  found  him  seated  on  a  couch  of  ebony,  inlaid  with  gold 


EXPLANATION. 

I \.Holy  Roman  Mnp.  (g«-'y>\ 1 

I         I     ,.          „         „     (Italy.)  I         I  Pnutia 

I— 1  France.  I 1  Lithuani 

CZZD  Spain.  C 

j         |  Portugal.  \        \foland 

I        'I  Kingdom  of  Two  Siciliet.     ('        I  Kingdom  of  Jerutatan. 
'ian  Totem.  \*/     Saracenic  foundation* 


I         I  Mohammedan  Lands  anitm. 

•    Roman  foundation*  t      Mediaeval  foundation* 


318  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

and  silver,  to  the  right  of  which  were  hung  nine  necklaces  of 
jewels,  and  the  like  to  the  left,  the  jewels  of  which  outshone 
the  light  of  day." 

&.  A.  Present  made  to  a,  Spanish  Caliph. 

In  937,  a  Spanish  caliph  received  as  a  gift  from  a  wealthy 
subject  hundreds  of  pounds  of  coined  and  virgin  gold ;  Indian 
aloes  and  aloe-wood  of  the  finest  quality  ;  camphor,  amber,  and 
musk  ;  thirty  pieces  of  silk,  painted  and  embroidered  with  gold  ; 
ten  long  mantles,  lined  with  marten's  fur,  from  Khorassan ;  a 
hundred  sable-skins ;  raw  and  spun  silk,  woolen  carpets  and 
rugs  ;  Arabian  horses  and  suits  of  armor  for  men  and  horses ; 
male  and  female  slaves,  the  latter  adorned  with  jewels,  and  hav- 
ing various  musical  instruments  on  which  they  could  perform. 

STUDY  ON  5. 

Make  a  list  of  the  industries  and  arts  that  must  have  been  known 
at  Bagdad  in  917.  Compare  the  visit  of  the  Greek  ambassadors  to 
Omar  (p.  280),  with  their  visit  to  this  Caliph ;  what  gi'eat  change  has 
occurred  ?  With  what  countries  must  the  Moors  of  Spain  have  had 
some  commerce  V  From  5,  and  the  Mohammedan  names  and  works 
in  3,  what  adjectives  will  you  apply  to  the  civilization  of  Islam  ? 


B.     STUDY  ON  OEUSADING  PERIOD. 

Chief  contemporary  authorities :  Monkish  chroniclers, 
such  as  Ordericus  Vitalis  ;  soldier  chroniclers,  such  as 
Joinville ;  laws  of  the  period,  canon  and  secular. 

Chief  modern  authorities  accessible  in  English :  Same 
as  in  preceding  period :  special  for  crusades,  Michaud, 
Sybel,  Cox. 

Questions  on  Map.  —  Compare  the  size  of  the  divisions  of  Europe 
with  the  size  of  the  modern  divisions.  What  cause  can  you  give  for 
their  number  and  comparatively  small  size  at  the  opening  of  the 
twelfth  century?  What  countries  of  Europe  have  positive  natural 
boundaries?  Which  countries  are  badly  denned  by  nature,  and  in 
which  directions?  Which  countries  will  most  easily  become  settled 
units,  and  why  ? 


STUDY    ON    CKUSADING    PERIOD.  319 


1.     Chronological  Summary  of  Leading  Events, 
1095-1215. 

a.   In  general. 

First  crusade  (see  p.  296)  preached  every- 
where by  the  clergy  and  by  special  emissaries  of 
the  pope,  notably  Peter  the  Hermit.  Men  of  all 
classes  and  sorts  start  in  great  disorder  for  the  Holy 
Land  after  Peter  the  Hermit  and  other  fanatical  lead- 
ers; many  perish  by  the  way;  in  Germany  they  massacre 
the  Jews ;  in  Bulgaria,  not  being  able  to  buy  provisions, 
they  devastate  the  country,  carry  off  the  flocks,  burn 
the  houses,  massacre  the  inhabitants  who  oppose  their 
violence. 

As  soon  as  possible,  organized  forces  of  French  and 
Germans,  amounting  to  two  or  three  hundred  thousand 
warriors,  under  the  lead  of  Duke  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
Count  Hugh  of  Vermandois,  — the  French  king's  brother, 
—  Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  Aymer  (Adhemar), 
bishop  of  Puy,  set  forth  for  Jerusalem.  Their  followers 
are  largely  knights,  who  mortgage  or  sell  their  lands  to 
other  knights,  and  largely  to  the  Church.  After  crossing 
the  Bosphorus  they  wage  a  constant  war  against  the 
"  infidel  "  ;  besiege  and  take  Nicsea  ;  Baldwin,  brother  of 
Godfrey,  takes  Edessa,  and  rules  its  territory  as  its  king. 
The  crusaders  besiege  Antioch,  and  after  nine  months 
gain  it.  Jerusalem  is  captured,  and  a  promiscuous  massacre 
of  its  inhabitants  follows,  during  which  the  Jews  are  burned 
alive  in  their  synagogues. 

Godfrey  of  Boulogne  is  chosen  king  of  the  Latin  King- 
dom of  Jerusalem. 

Constant  petty  Avar  in  the  East ;  on  the  fall  of 
Edessa  into  the  hands  of  the  Moslem,  a  new 
appeal  for  help  is  made  to  Europe. 


320  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


St.  Bernard  as  an  emissary  of  the  pope  preaches 
the  second  crusade.       The  king   of   France  and 
the  emperor  lead  its  forces,  but  return  unsuccess- 
ful after  a  disastrous  march  and  heavy  losses  in  Palestine. 

[   1149  TO  1171.    |    *        *        * 

Saladin  deposes  the  Moslem  rulers  at  Cairo, 
and  restores  it  to  the  ^caliphate  at  Bagdad;  re- 
conquers Jerusalem  for  Islam,  but  allows  the 


Latins  to  leave  the  city. 

A  third  crusade  is  preached  in  Europe.  Rich- 
ard I.  the  Lion-Heart,  of  England,  Philip  Augus- 
tus of  France,  and  the  Emperor  Frederick  I.  the 


Red-bearded  (Barbarossa)  set  forth  for  the  Holy  Land. 
In  England,  the  Saladin  tithe,  a  tax  of  a  tenth,  is  levied  on 
all  who  do  not  personally  join  the  crusade.  Frederick 
dies  in  Asia  Minor ;  during  the  siege  of  Acre  the  soldiers 
die  by  thousands  of  a  pestilence.  Philip  Augustus  and 
Richard  quarrel  on  the  way  arid  after  their  arrival  at 
Acre.  On  the  surrender  of  this  town,  Philip  returns 
to  France ;  quarrel  between  Richard  and  the  Duke  of 
Austria ;  the  armies,  too  much  weakened  to  attack  Jeru- 
salem, are  broken  up,  and  make  their  way  as  they  can 
back  to  Europe.  Richard,  passing  through  Austria  in  dis- 
guise, is  recognized  and  imprisoned ;  for  a  heavy  ransom 
raised  from  the  English  people  the  emperor  releases  him. 
|>  1194  TO  UPS.  |  Unsuccessful  crusading. 

Innocent  III.  commissions  Fulk  of  Neuilly  to 
preach  a  new  crusade,  the  chief  leader?  of  which 
are  French  barons ;  they  ask  the  Venetians  for 
provisioned  ships ;  unable  to  pay  for  them  in  money,  they 
agree  with  the  Doge  to  pay  for  them  by  conquering 
Zara  ;  the  Doge  himself  joins  the  crusade,  and  the  Vene- 
tians are  to  have  half  of  all  the  conquests  made ;  Zara 
conquered,  the  crusaders  take  up  the  cause  of  a  dethroned 


1198 

TO 


1204. 


STUDY   OK   CRUSADING   PERIOD.  321 

Byzantine  prince,  whom  they  undertake  to  restore  to  the 
throne ;  the  pope  protests  ;  nevertheless  they  depose  the 
reigning  emperor  on  behalf  of  his  rival,  whom  they  in  turn 
dethrone,  since  he  fails  to  pay  the  money  promised  to  the 
crusaders.  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders,  is  now  chosen 
emperor  of  the  East,  and  the  Latin  Empire  of  Constanti- 
nople is  founded. 

STUDY  ON  I  «. 

What  and  who  has  the  commanding  force  in  Europe  in  1095? 
What  facts  show  this  ?  What  does  the  long  siege  of  Antioch  show  in 
regard  to  the  comparative  military  power  of  Christian  and  Turk? 
What  is  the  cause  of  the  third  crusade?  Compare  the  treatment  of 
Jerusalem  by  the  crusaders  and  by  Omar  and  Saladin.  What  do 
many  of  the  crusaders  evidently  consider  their  first  Christian  duty  ? 
What  civilizations  are  brought  into  contact  by  the  crusades  ?  What 
new  material  forces  do  they  put  at  the  disposal  of  the  pope  ?  WThat 
increase  of  wealth  do  they  bring  to  the  Church  ?  What  proof  can  you 
find  that  the  crusading  zeal  diminishes  during  this  period?  What 
reason  can  you  assign  ?  Why  should  France  lead  in  these  movements 
rather  than  Germany  ?  Why  should  the  French  emperors  of  Constan- 
tinople and  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  be  called  Latin  ?  Why  should 
Europeans  still  be  called  "Franks  "  throughout  the  East? 

b.   Summary  of  Events  in  Empire. 

Quarrel  of  investitures  settled  by  the  Concordat 
of  Worms,  by  which  the  emperor  retains  but  one- 
half  his  former  rights.  It  is  established  that  the 
emperor  must  receive  his  power  from  a  conclave  of  Ger- 
man princes,  temporal 'and  spiritual.  —  Under  Arnold  of 
Brescia,  Rome  attempts  to  revive  her  old  republican  gov- 
ernment, free  from  the  rule  of  the  pope.  —  The  Polish 
dukes  conquer  West  Pomerania,  whose  people  promise  to 
recognize  the  lordship  of  Poland,  and  to  become  Christians. 

Frederic  Barbarossa,  of  the  Swabian  house  of 
Hohenstaufen,  is  elected  emperor ;  the  cities  of 
Northern  Italy  form  the  Lombard  League  to  pre- 


1152 

TO 


1190. 


322  STUDIES' IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

serve  their  independence  against  him  ;  long  wars  with  the 
League  end  in  the  emperor's  acknowledging  the  rights  of 
the  cities ;  war  with  Henry  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  and 
quarrels  with  the  popes,  in  which  the  papacy  comes  off 
victorious.  The  followers  of  the  emperor  are  named 
Grhibelins,  those  of  the  popes,  Cruelfs.  —  Frederic  dies 
while  engaged  in  the  third  crusade. 

Continued  strife  of  pope  and  emperor, — of  Guelph 
and  Ghibelin  ;  strife  of  emperor  and  powerful  Ger- 
man princes  ;  large  privileges  granted  to  cities.  — 
Naples  and  Sicily  won  from  the  Normans  by  the  emperor. 

c.   In  France. 


King  Lewis  VI.  (the  Fat)  fights  with  several  of 
his  great  feudal  lords  over  questions  of  sovereignty 
and  the  administration  of  justice,  in  behalf  of  the 
church  and  their  own  vassals ;  is  on  the  whole  victorious, 
and  gains  much  love  from  the  common  people. 

King  and  pope  quarrel  over  investitures ;  the 
king  having  burned  a  church  full  of  people,  makes 
peace  with  the  pope  on  condition  of  going  upon  a 


crusade  (second).  Suger,  abbot  of  St.  Denis,  is  regent 
during  his  absence ;  on  his  return,  war  breaks  out  with 
Henry  II.  of  England,  who  has  claims  to  various  parts  of 
the  French  territory. 

Philip  Augustus  upon  the  throne ;  the  great 
vassals  make  war  upon  him,  but  the  king,  victor- 
ious, gains  control  of  new  lands ;  goes  upon  third 
crusade ;  on  his  return,  wars  with  Richard  and  John  of 
England  for  Normandy,  which  he  wins  from  the  latter, 
and  makes  a  part  of  France. 

In  the  south,  the  sects  of  the  Albigenses  and  Waldenses 
are  spreading  doctrines  denying  the  spiritual  lordship  of 
Rome ;  the  pope,  unable  to  convert  them,  declares  a  cru- 


STUDY   OX   CRUSADING   PEKIOD.  323 

sade  against  them ;  the  South  of  France  is  ravaged  by 
men  from  all  parts  under  the  lead  of  Simon,  of  Montfort, 
and  the  heresy  is  practically  exterminated. 

Disaffected  Flemish  barons,  joined  by  John  of  England 
and  the  German  emperor,  make  war  on  Philip ;  the  latter, 
assisted  by  the  burghers  of  the  Flemish  cities,  defeats 
them  at  Bouvinea  (1214). 

d.   In  England. 

The  barons  oppose  King  Henry  I. ;  he  grants  a 
charter,  giving  privileges  to  them  and  to  the  clergy; 
helped  by  the  common  people  of  the  realm,  whom 
Anselm  rouses  to  his  aid,  he  defeats  a  rival  claimant  to 
the  throne.  His  successor  wages  war  with  various  aspi- 
rants to  the  royal  power. 

King  Henry  II.  makes  Thomas  Beket  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  and  his  chief  councillor. 
The  latter  insists  that  the  clergy  shall  be  judged 
by  the  law  and  the  officers  of  the  Church  alone,  while  the 
king  insists  that  they  shall  be  judged  by  the  common  law 
of  England,  and  in  the  king's  courts.  To  decide  it,  bishops 
and  barons  meet  at  Clarendon,  and  issue  the  "Constitutions 
of  Clarendon,"  by  which  the  king's  court  is  to  decide  in 
each  case  to  whom  the  judgment  shall  belong,  and  which 
otherwise  strengthen  the  king  against  the  pope.  The 
quarrel  of  Henry  and  Thomas  continues,  ending  in  the 
murder  of  Thomas,  who  is  declared  a  saint  by  Rome,  and 
greatly  honored  by  the  English  people. 

With  the  approval  of  the  pope,  Henry  invades  Ireland, 
and  makes  it  a  part  of  the  English  realm.  Wars  with  the 
French  and  Scotch,  in  the  midst  of  which,  Henry,  fearing 
defeat,  does  penance  at  the  tomb  of  Thomas  Beket. 

He  establishes  circuit  courts  to  do  the  "  king's  justice," 
and  collect  the  "king's  dues,"  and  allows  appeals  from 


324  STUDIES   IN  GENERAL   HISTORY. 

these  to  himself  and  his  own  vjouncillors ;  imposes  the 
"  Saladin  tithe,"  a  tax  levied  on  all  goods  and  chattels,  to 
support  a  contemplated  crusade. 

Richard,  the  Lion-hearted,  sells  bishoprics,  sher- 
iffdoms,  and  other  offices,  and  with  the  money  goes 
on  a  crusade,  leaving  England  under  the  regency 
of  bishops  ;  on  his  return,  he  meets  revolt  and  disaffec- 
tion in  England  arid  Normandy,  and  under  his  successor, 
John,  Normandy  is  finally  lost  to  the  English  crown; 
John  quarrels  with  the  pope  over  the  election  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury ;  his  kingdom  is  put  under  interdict, 
and  himself  excommunicated ;  his  barons  are  against  him, 
because  of  his  failure  to  keep  his  promises  to  redress  their 
wrongs ;  he  seizes  their  castles  and  confiscates  the  lands 
of  the  Church ;  the  pope  deposes  him  and  proclaims  a  cru- 
sade against  him ;  John  yields,  surrenders  England  as  a 
fief  to  Rome,  and  receives  it  again  as  "pope's  man"; 
under  the  lead  of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the 
English  barons  demand  a  recognition  of  the  rights  given 
by  the  charters  of  former  kings;  John  promises,  but  delays 
to  fulfil. 

STUDY  ON  b,  c,d. 

What  facts  show  uneasiness  under  papal  rule?  Compare  this 
uneasiness  with  that  shown  in  preceding  period.  What  facts  show 
increase  of  papal  power?  The  weakness  of  the  imperial  name  ?  What 
new  opposition  has  the  emperor  to  meet?  What  does  the  fact  and  the 
result  of  this  opposition  show  of  the  power  of  those  making  it  ? 

What  part  of  the  government  is  increasing  in  power  in  France? 
In  England?  What  reason  can  you  find  for  this  in  the  crusading 
movement?  What  efforts  made  by  the  pope  in  the  interest  of 
Christian  unity  ?  What  class  shows  itself  on  the  side  of  the  kings  V 
What  reason  can  you  imagine  for  this?  What  significant  fact  ap- 
pears in  the  victory  of  Bouvines?  Explain  the  loss  of  Normandy 
to  England.  Name  three  things  shown  by  the  affair  of  Thomas 
Beket. 


STUDY   ON   CRUSADING    PERIOD. 


325 


2.   List   of  Famous   Names   and    Works    of   Twelfth 
Century. 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Abelard. 

French;  of 

Wanders 

Teacher  in 

Latin. 

a  noble 

from  school 

schools  of 

house. 

to  school, 

Paris;  applies 

studying 

the  doctrines  of 

with  fa- 

Nominalism 

mous  mas- 

(see p.  304)  to 

ters  ;  stu- 

theology, and  con- 

dent at 

demned  as  a 

Paris. 

heretic. 

Aben-Ezra. 

Jew  of 

Rabbinical. 

First  to  write 

Hebrew. 

Toledo. 

exhaustive  and 

scholarly  criti- 

cisms on  the 

Holy  Scriptures. 

Averroes. 

Spanish 

Studies  the- 

Teaches phil- 

Arabic. 

Arab; 

ology,  juris- 

osophy, law, 

judge  in 

prudence, 

and  medicine 

Seville, 

mathema- 

at Cordova  ; 

Cordova, 

tics,  medi- 

author of  a 

and 

cine,  and 

complete  trans- 

Morocco. 

philosophy. 

lation  of  and 

commentary  on 

Aristotle. 

Arnold  of 

Italian 

Studies  in 

Attacks  the 

*    *    * 

Brescia. 

priest. 

France 

temporal  power 

under 

of  the  pope 

Abelard. 

and  the  wealth 

of  the  clergy  ; 

agitates  for 

the  restoration 

of  the  ancient 

republic. 

326 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Beket, 

Son  of  a 

Studies  at 

See  1. 

Latin  and 

Thomas. 

London 

University 

English. 

trader  and 

of  Paris; 

magis- 

court-life. 

trate;  of 

Norman 

descent. 

Bernard,  St. 

Frenchman  ; 

Monastic. 

Orator;  commis- 

Latin and 

of  noble 

sioned  by  the  pope 

French. 

birth  ; 

to  preach  the 

abbot. 

second  crusade  ; 

author  of  sermons, 

letters,  moral  and 

religious  works; 

founds  many  mon- 

asteries of  the 

Cistercian  order. 

Frederic 

Son  of  Swa- 

Life  in 

See  1. 

German. 

Barbarossa. 

bian  duke  ; 

camp  and 

elected 

court. 

emperor. 

Geoffrey  of 

Welsh;  arch- 

Monastic. 

Translates  the  his- 

Latin. 

Monmouth. 

deacon  anc 

tory  of  the  Bri- 

bishop. 

tons  from  the 

Welsh. 

Godfrey  of 

French  count 

Social  and 

See  1  ;  author  of 

*    *     * 

Bouillon. 

of  the 

military 

Assizes  of  Jerusa- 

Empire 

life. 

lem,  the  best  col- 

(Nether- 

lection of  feudal 

landish). 

law. 

John  of 

Saxon  ;  arch 

Studies  at 

Writes  a  satirical 

Latin. 

Salisbury. 

bishop  of 

Paris 

work  on  "  The 

Canter- 

under 

frivolities  of 

bury. 

Abelard. 

Courtiers,  and  the 

footsteps  of  Philos 

ophers";  poet. 

STUDY   ON   CRUSADING    PERIOD. 


327 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Maimonides. 

Cordovan 

Proficient  in 

Mathematician, 

Hebrew 

Jew;  phy- 

theology 

astronomer,  phi- 

and 

sician  to 

and  medi- 

losopher, and  theo- 

Arabic. 

Saladin. 

cine  ;  mas- 

logian, following 

ter  of 

Moses  and 

Greek  and 

Aristotle. 

Arabic 

philoso- 
phy. 

Malmesbury, 

English; 

Monastic  ; 

Author  of  chroni- 

Latin. 

William  of. 

monk  ; 

studied 

cles  of  contempo- 

monastery 

with 

rary  and  tradition- 

librarian. 

learned 

al  English  history. 

bishop. 

Map,  Walttr. 

Anglo-Nor- 

Studies at 

Poet,  using  Keltic 

Latin  and 

man;  arch- 

Paris. 

stories  ;  writes 

French. 

deacon  of 

satirical  poems. 

Oxford  , 

friend  and 

counsellor 

of   the 

English 

king  ; 

diploma- 

tist. 

Ordericus 

Anglo- 

Studies  in 

Poet;  author  of 

Latin. 

Vitalis. 

Norman  ; 

French 

general  Ecclesias- 

monk. 

monaster- 

tical History. 

ies. 

: 

Peter  the 

Italian;  of 

Studies  at 

Founds  the 

Latin. 

Lombard. 

obscure 

Bologna, 

Scholastic 

birth  ; 

Rheims, 

philosophy,  an  at- 

bishop of 

and  Paris. 

tempt  to  reconcile 

Paris. 

the  philosophy  of 

Aristotle  with  the 

theology  of  the 

Church. 

328 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Vhilip 
Augustus. 

Hereditary 
king  of 
France. 

Life  of  court 
and  camp; 
crusading. 

See  1. 

French. 

Richard  I.  of 
England. 

Hereditary 
king  of 
England. 

Life  of  camp 
and  court  ; 
crusading. 

Poet,  musician,  and 
knight. 

French. 

Roger  of 
Hoveden. 

English  ; 
legal  ad- 
viser of 

Studies  at 
Oxford(?). 

Historian  of  con- 
temporary events. 

Latin. 

Henry  II. 
of  Eng- 
land; 

magistrate. 

Saladin. 

Arab  sol- 

*   *    * 

See  1.    Founder  of 

Arabic, 

dier  ;  sul- 

Mohammedan 

tan  of 
Egypt  and 
Syria. 

dynasty,  ruling 
from  Cairo. 

Wace. 

Of  a  noble 

Studies  in  a 

Uses  the  chronicle 

French 

(baronial) 
Norman 

monastic 
school  at 

of  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth  for 

family  ; 
monk. 

Caen. 

French  poetical 
romances  of  Ar- 

thur and  early 
Britons,  and  writes 

a  poetical  history 
of  Eollo  and  the 

Norman  dukes. 

STUDY   ON   CRUSADING   PERIOD.  329 

Famous  Foundations,  Enterprises,  Works  not  named  in  Lists. 

School  of  Bologna,  founded  at  least  as  early  as  begin- 
ning of  twelfth  century ;  famous  for  the  study  of  Roman 
and  canon  law.  The  Roman  law  there  taught  (Justin- 
ian's) translated  into  French  in  this  same  century;  the 
canon  law,  based  on  the  Pseudo-Isidorean  Decretals  (see 
p.  309),  codified  by  a  Benedictine  monk,  one  of  the  Bo- 
lognese  professors. 

Schools  of  Paris,  famous  for  the  study  of  Scholastic  phi- 
losophy ;  a  study  which  received  much  impulse  from  various 
students  and  teachers  who  had  studied  Averroes  in  Spain. 

Turpin's  Chronicle,  a  half-romantic  work  written  in 
Latin  by  German  and  Spanish  monks,  and  forming  the 
basis  of  much  of  the  mediaeval  romance  in  regard  to 
Charlemagne. 

Foundation  of  Orders  of  Military  Monies :  a.  Knights 
of  St.  John,  or  Hospitallers;  b.  Templars;  c.  Teutonic 
Knights.  These  orders  were  great  brotherhoods  of  knight- 
monks  whose  duties  were  to  defend  and  care  for  all  Chris- 
tian people  and  places,  while  their  vows  bound  them  to  a 
half-monastic  life.  Their  property  was  held  in  common  ; 
the  care  of  sick  or  disabled  pilgrims  or  knights  was  one 
of  their  special  duties. 

STUDY    ON    2. 

Write  a  statement,  in  the  form  of  a  tabular  view  or  an  essay,  of  all 
that  is  taught  us  by  2. 

3.  Extracts  and  Stories  Illustrative  of  the  Period. 

a.   Appeal  of  Pope  Urban  II.  at  the  Council  of  Clermont. 

(Order icus  Vitalis.) 

"  '  The  Turks  and  Persians,'  said  Pope  Urban,  '  the  Arabians 
and  Saracens,  have  seized  Antioch,  Nicsea,  and  Jerusalem 
itself .  .  .  with  other  Christian  cities,  and  have  now  turned 
their  mighty  power  against  the  Empire  of  the  Greeks.  .  .  . 


330  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

In  the  churches,  where  the  divine  sacrifice  was  once  celebrated 
by  the  faithful,  the  Gentiles  now  stable  their  horses.  .  .  . 
They  have  dragged  away  captives  into  far-distant  countries, 
into  the  seats  of  barbarism,  and  yoking  them  with  thongs,  set 
them  to  labor  in  the  fields,  compelled  them  to  plow  the  land 
like  oxen,  and  to  undergo  other  toils  befitting  beasts  rather 
than  men.  .  .  .  Our  brethren  are  flogged  with  whips,  urged 
with  goads,  and  abominably  subjected  to  innumerable  suffer- 
ings. .  .  .'  No  sooner  had  Pope  Urban  eloquently  poured  forth 
these  complaints  into  the  ears  of  Christians,  than,  by  the  inspira- 
tion of  God's  grace,  thousands  were  inflamed  with  excessive  zeal 
for  undertaking  the  enterprise,  and  resolved  to  sell  their  lands 
and  leave  all  they  had  for  the  sake  of  Christ.  Rich  and  poor, 
monks  and  clerks,  townsmen  and  peasants,  were  all  seized  with 
a  wonderful  ardour  to  inarch  to  Jerusalem  or  succour  those 
that  became  pilgrims.  .  .  .  Estates  of  great  value  were  sold 
for  a  trifle,  and  arms  were  purchased  to  inflict  divine  vengeance 
on  the  Saracens.  Robbers,  pirates,  and  other  criminals,  touched 
by  the  grace  of  God,  rose  from  the  depths  of  iniquity,  con- 
fessed and  renounced  their  sins,  and  .  .  .  joined  the  ranks  of 
the  pilgrims.  The  prudent  Pope  stirred  up  all  who  were  able  to 
bear  arms,  to  fight  against  the  enemies  of  God,  absolving  by 
his  authority  all  penitents  from  their  sins  from  the  hour  they 
should  take  the  cross,  and  releasing  them  from  all  obligations 
of  fasting  and  other  mortifications  of  the  flesh." 

b.    The  Same.     (From  another  contemporary  chronicler.) 

The  Pope  addressed  himself  to  all  the  nations  represented  at 
the  Council,  particularly  to  the  French,  who  were  in  the  major- 
ity :  "  Nation  beloved  by  God,"  said  he,  "  it  is  in  your  courage 
that  the  Christian  church  has  placed  its  hope.  .  .  .  Recall, 
without  ceasing,  to  your  minds  the  danger  and  the  glory  of 
your  fathers.  .  .  .  More  noble  triumphs  await  you,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  God  of  armies ;  you  will  deliver  Europe  and 
Asia  ;  you  will  save  the  city  of  Jesus  Christ,  —  that  Jerusalem 
which  was  chosen  by  the  Lord,  and  from  whence  the  law  is 


STUDY   ON   CRUSADING    PERIOD.  331 

come  to  us.  ...  Christian  warriors,  who  seek  without  end 
vain  pretexts  for  war,  rejoice,  for  you  have  to-day  found  true 
ones.  You,  who  have  been  so  often  the  terror  of  your  fellow- 
citizens,  go  and  fight  against  the  barbarians,  go  and  fight  for 
the  deliverance  of  the  holy  places ;  ...  if  you  triumph  over 
your  enemies,  the  kingdoms  of  the  East  will  be  your  heritage  ; 
if  you  are  conquered,  you  will  have  the  glory  of  dving  in  the 
very  same  place  as  Jesus  Christ,  and  God  will  not  forget  that 
he  has  found  you  in  his  holy  ranks.  .  .  .  Remember  well  what 
the  Lord  has  said  to  you :  '  He  who  loves  his  father  and  his 
mother  more  than  me  is  not  worthy  of  me  ;  whoever  will  aban- 
don his  house  or  his  father,  or  his  mother,  or  his  wife,  or  his 
children,  or  his  inheritance,  for  the  sake  of  my  name,  shall  be 
recompensed  a  hundredfold,  and  possess  life  eternal.'  "  Rising 
as  one  man,  with  one  voice,  the  people  answered,  "It  is  the 
will  of  God  !  It  is  the  will  of  God  ! " 

c.    The  Sacred  Spear, 

When  the  Christians  were  besieged  in  Antioch,  they  suffered 
fearfully  from  famine  and  weakness ;  their  commander  even 
had  to  burn  down  some  sections  of  the  city  in  order  to  force 
them  to  fight  with  the  Moslem.  The  Count  of  Flanders  became 
a  beggar  in  the  streets  for  the  coarsest  and  poorest  food,  and 
many  a  knight  sold  all  his  arms  for  the  food  for  a  single  night. 
In  the  midst  of  this  misery,  one  of  the  princes  cried  out,  "O 
God,  what  is  become  of  thy  power?  If  thou  art  still  an  all- 
powerful  God,  what  is  become  of  thy  justice  ?  Are  we  not  thy 
children,  are  we  not  thy  soldiers?" 

At  this  critical  state  of  affairs,  a  priest  declared  that  it  had 
been  revealed  to  him  by  a  thrice-repeated  vision  that  near  the 
altar  of  one  of  the  churches  of  Antioch  lay  buried  the  head 
of  the  spear  which  pierced  our  Lord,  and  that  if  this  were 
found  and  borne  at  the  head  of  the  army,  certain  victory  would 
follow.  The  report  flew  among  the  soldiers  ;  for  three  days 
they  prayed  and  fasted  so  as  to  prepare  to  find  the  lance.  On 
the  morning  of  the  third  day,  twelve  chosen  crusaders  began 


332  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

the  search.  At  midnight  the  lance  was  found,  the  city  resounded 
with  shouts  of  joy,  and  the  Christians  were  eager  to  meet  their 
foes.  The  next  night  was  passed  in  prayer  arid  devotion.  On 
the  following  day  the  plains  of  Antioch  rang  with  the  battle- 
ciy  of  the  crusaders:  "It  is  the  will  of  God."  This  army, 
ragged,  famished,  sick,  but  inspired  by  faith  in  the  divine  aid 
promised  by  the  lance,  advanced  in  perfect  order  and  certain  of 
victory,  to  attack  the  Moslem  thousands.  The  battle  went  hard  ; 
but  as  victory  waned,  say  the  historians,  there  appeared  a 
squadron  descending  from  the  mountains,  led  by  three  horse- 
men in  white,  and  clad  in  shining  armor.  "Behold,"  cried  a 
bishop,  "the  holy  martyrs,  George,  Demetrius,  and  Theodore, 
come  to  fight  for  you."  Again  the  war-cry  sounded:  "It  is 
the  will  of  God  "  ;  the  Saracens  were  put  to  flight,  and  the  Chris- 
tians fell  on  their  deserted  camp,  where  they  found  food  and 
raiment  and  "  admirable  riches."  For  days  they  were  busy 
carrying  the  spoil  into  Antioch,  and  "  every  crusader,"  according 
to  the  remark  of  Albert  d'Aie,  "  found  himself  much  richer  than 
when  he  quitted  Europe."  When  afterwards,  the  vision  of  the 
lance  was  questioned,  the  priest  who  saw  it  resolved  to  end  all 
doubt  by  submitting  to  the  ordeal  by  fire.  In  the  presence  of 
the  army,  and  full  of  faith,  he  entered  the  high  flaming  blaze  in 
his  simple  robes.  He  passed  the  ordeal  alive,  but  not  unscathed, 
and  in  a  few  days  died  ;  ' '  and  the  miraculous  lance  from  that 
time  ceased  to  work  miracles." 

d.   From  the  Bulls  of  the  Pope  regarding  the  Second  Crusade. 

"  We  grant  to  those  who  will  devote  themselves  to  this  glori- 
ous enterprise  the  privileges  which  our  predecessor  Urban 
granted  to  the  soldiers  of  the  cross.  We  have  likewise  ordered 
that  their  wives  and  their  children,  their  worldly  goods,  and 
their  possessions,  should  be  placed  under  the  safeguard  -of  the 
Church,  of  the  archbishops,  the  bishops,  and  other  prelates. 
We  order,  by  our  apostolic  authority,  that  those  who  shall 
have  taken  the  cross  shall  be  exempt  from  all  kinds  of  pur- 
suit on  account  of  their  property." 


STUDY   ON   CKUSAD1NG   PERIOD.  333 

******* 
"  He  who  shall  have  contracted  debt  shall  pay  no  interest. 
...  If  the  lords  of  whom  he  holds  will  not,  or  cannot  lend 
him  the  money  necessary,  he  shall  be  allowed  to  engage  his 
lands  or  possessions  to  ecclesiastics  or  any  other  persons. 
As  our  predecessor  has  done,  by  the  authority  of  the  all-power- 
ful God,  and  by  that  of  the  blessed  St.  Peter,  prince  of  the 
apostles,  we  grant  absolution  and  remission  of  sins,  we  promise 
life  eternal  to  all  those  who  shall  undertake  and  terminate  the 
said  pilgrimage,  or  who  shall  die  in  the  service  of  Jesus  Christ, 
after  having  confessed  their  sins  with  a  contrite  and  humble 
heart." 

e.   After  the  Second  Crusade. 

Many  complaints  were  made  of  its  preacher,  St.  Bernard,  and 
his  partisans,  "struck  with  stupor,"  could  only  say  among 
themselves:  "God  in  these  latter  days  has  neither  spared  his 
people  nor  his  name ;  the  children  of  the  Church  have  been 
given  over  to  death  in  the  desert,  or  massacred  by  the  sword, 
or  devoured  by  hunger ;  the  contempt  of  the  Lord  has  fallen 
even  upon  princes ;  God  has  left  them  to  wander  in  unknown 
ways,  and  all  sorts  of  pains  and  afflictions  have  been  strewed 
upon  their  paths." 

/.    Impressions  of  the  Crusaders. 

During  the  first  crusade  "they  believed  at  every  moment 
that  they  were  approaching  the  end  of  their  pilgrimage.  .  .  . 
Many  of  the  great  lords,  who  had  passed  their  lives  in  their 
rustic  donjons,  knew  very  little  more  on  this  head  than  their 
vassals  ;  they  took  with  them  their  hunting  and  fishing  appoint- 
ments, and  marched  with  their  falcons  on  their  wrists,  preceded 
by  their  hounds." 

As  the  crusaders  approached  Palestine,  "in  the  plains  and 
on  the  hills  were  oranges,  pomegranates,  and  many  other  sorts 
of  trees  unknown  in  the  "West.  Among  these  new  productions 
was  the  sugarcane,"  which  the  pilgrims  brought  back  to  Europe, 


334  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

whilst  the  Saracens  introduced  it  into  the  kingdom  of  Grenada, 
whence  the  Spaniards  afterwards  conveyed  it  to  America. 

The  chroniclers  exclaim  over  the  beauty  of  the  gardens  of 
Damascus  and  its  "variegated"  marble  edifices;  they  admire 
"the  industry  and  the  commerce  of  Tyre,  the  fertility  of  its  ter- 
ritory, its  dyes  so  celebrated  in  all  antiquity,  that  sand  which  is 
changed  into  transparent  vases."  "As  for  Antioch,"  says  one 
of  the  chroniclers,  "  this  place  was  an  object  of  terror  to  those 
who  looked  upon  it,  for  the  number  of  its  strong  and  vast  towers, 
which  amounted  to  three  hundred  and  sixty,"  while  its  ramparts, 
solid  as  rock,  were  three  leagues  in  extent.  On  reaching 
Constantinople,  a  French  chronicler  exclaims:  "Oh,  what  a 
vast  and  beautiful  city  is  Constantinople  !  "  A  German  histo- 
rian says  that  "  such  magnificence  could  not  be  believed  were  it 
not  seen."  It  is  said  that  the  French  knights,  on  seeing  its 
towers  and  palaces,  "  could  not  persuade  themselves  that  there 
could  be  such  a  rich  city  in  all  the  world." 

When,  finally,  Constantinople  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  cru- 
saders, knights,  barons,  and  soldiers  exclaimed  in  delight, 
"  Never  was  so  rich  a  booty  seen  since  the  creation  of  the  world  ! " 

"  The  Veaetians,  more  enlightened  than  the  other  crusaders, 
and  born  in  a  city  constructed  and  embellished  by  the  arts, 
caused  several  of  the  monuments  of  Byzantium  to  be  transported 
into  Italy." 

g.    From  a  Letter  of  Saladin. 

"  God  has  performed  the  promise  he  made  to  raise  his  reli- 
gion above  all  religions.  Its  light  is  more  brilliant  than  that  of 
the  morning ;  the  Mussulmans  are  restored  to  their  heritage, 
which  had  been  wrested  from  them.  ...  He  only  made  war 
on  those  who  opposed  Him,  that  the  word  of  God  might  be 
spread  ;  for  the  word  of  God  is  exalted." 

h.    The  Bargain  of  the  Venetians  with  the  Crusaders.  (Villehar- 

douin.) 

When  the  doge  of  Venice  granted  aid  to  the  crusaders,  he 
said,  "We  will  make  transports  which  will  carry  4500  horses 


STUDY    ON   CKUSADING   PERIOD.  335 

and  9000  squires ;  and  in  ships  we  will  convey  4500  knights 
and  20,000  foot-soldiers.  And  the  contract  shall  cover  nine 
months'  provision  for  all  these  horses  and  all  these  people. 
This  is  what  we  will  do  on  condition  that  we  are  paid  four  marcs 
for  every  horse  and  two  for  every  man  ;  and  the  contract  shall 
begin  to  take  effect  from  the  day  in  which  we  set  sail  from 
Venice,  in  the  service  of  God  and  Christendom."  The  doge  also 
promised  fifty  armed  galleys  "  for  the  love  of  God,"  on  condition 
that  French  and  Venetians  should  share  half  and  half  in  all 
their  gains. 

STUDY  ON  3. 

Xame  all  the  motives  which,  in  your  opinion,  moved  men  *o  go 
crusading.  Of  these,  which  were  characteristic  of  the  time?  Which 
common  to  all  times  ?  What  is  the  relation  of  the  pope  to  the  cru- 
sades ?  What  historic  reason  why  the  pope  should  appeal  especially 
to  the  French  ?  What  was  the  value  of  the  sacred  lance  to  the  cru- 
saders? What  would  naturally  become  of  much  feudal  land  as  a 
result  of  such  circumstances  as  the  crusaders  found  themselves  in  at 
Antioch?  What  effect  would  such  circumstances  have  upon  their 
faith  ?  What  proofs  that  this  effect  was  produced  ?  What  effect  upon 
the  population  of  Europe?  What  class  would  become  relatively  weak 
in  point  of  numbers  ?  What  did  crusading  evidently  teach  the  cru- 
saders? What  benefits  evidently  accrued  to  Europe  from  this  cru- 
sading? What  occupations  would  rise  in  value  in  men's  regard? 
To  whom  would  the  power  formerly  exercised  by  the  perished  knights 
now  pass  ?  What  do  we  learn  as  to  the  comparative  amount  of  civil- 
ization in  the  West  and  in  the  East  ?  In  what  ways  was  the  West  be- 
hind ?  Why  should  the  Venetians  be  more  enlightened  than  the  other 
crusaders  ?  What  practical  proof  in  their  own  city  of  their  civilization  ? 
What  motives  and  what  spirit  seem  to  have  actuated  Saladin  ?  State 
all  that  you  learn  about  the  Venetians  from  their  bargain  with  the 
crusaders. 


336  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTOEY. 

C.   LATEE  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD,   1215  - 1492.  —  From  the 
Great  Charter  to  the  Discovery  of  America, 

Chief  contemporary  authorities  and  sources  of  informa- 
tion :  Laws  of  England,  France,  the  Empire,  and  the 
Church ;  charters  and  petitions  of  guilds,  towns,  orders ; 
the  monastic  chroniclers,  such  as  Matthew  Paris  and  the 
monks  of  St.  Denis;  the  chronicles  of  courtiers  and  travel- 
lers, such  as  those  of  Joinville,  Froissart,  Marco  Polo; 
literary  remains1  in  poetry  and  prose,  notably  of  Chaucer, 
Dante,  Roger  Bacon ;  monuments  of  period,  —  its  castles, 
cathedrals,  town-defences  and  town-halls ;  frescoes  and 
tapestries,  painted  and  wrought  for  churches,  castles,  or 
town-halls. 

Chief  modern  authorities  in  English,  as  before,  adding 
Rogers'  "  Six  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages,"  and  Bren- 
tano's  "  Essay  on  Guilds  "  for  industrial  history. 

1.   Organizations  of  the  Period. 

a.   States. 

The  kingdoms  of  Europe  are  still,  in  theory,  feudal 
monarchies;  the  Empire  still  the  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire; in  each  country,  however,  now  appear  prominently 
Assemblies  of  Estates;  that  is,  assemblies  composed  of 
men  from  the  Estate  (rank  or  order)  of  Nobility,  to  which 
men  are  admitted  by  birth  and  training ;  from  the  Estate  of 
the  Clergy,  to  which  they  are  admitted  by  vows  of  devo- 
tion to  the  Church ;  and  from  the  Third  Estate,  the  Estate 
of  Commons,  that  is,  of  free,  untitled  men.  In  France, 
this  assembly  is  called  into  existence  by  King  Philip  the 
Fair,  and  is  named  the  States- G-eneral ;  in  Spain,  it  is 
the  Cortes;  in  England,  the  Parliament;  in  Germany,  the 

1  For  the  literary  remains  of  England,  see  the  publications  of  the  Early 
English  Text  Society. 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD. 


337 


Diet.  Practically,  on  the  continent,  the  merchants  pre- 
dominate in  the  third  estate ;  in  England,  the  merchants 
and  the  country  gentry  (knights  of  landed  property) 
alike  compose  it.  These  assemblies  of  estates  are  called 
together  at  the  desire  of  kings  or  emperors,  to  vote  sup- 
plies of  money  for  the  needs  of  the  monarch,  and  some- 
times to  be  consulted  on  the  affairs  of  the  realm.  In  the 
empire  the  emperor  is  now  elected  by  a  body  of  seven 
electors,  three  of  them  archbishops,  four  of  them  princes 
or  dukes  of  great  German  fiefs. 

b.    The   Church. 

The  following  table  shows  the  elements  and  relations 
of  the  ecclesiastical  organization :  — 


Pope,  elected  by  cardinals ] 
for  life,  or  until  neces- 
sary cause  of  deposition. 


General  councils  of  bish- 
ops and  archbishops, 
called  together  by  pope 
or  emperor. 

Archbishops  and  bishops, 
appointed  or  confirmed 
by  the  pope. 


Appoints  cardinals,  archbishops,  and  often 
bishops ;  determines  in  regard  to  the  forma- 
tion of  new  religious  orders,  and  appoints 
their  generals ;  has  general  oversight  of 
university  instruction,  and  suppresses  books 
and  men  whose  teachings  seem  injurious  to 
religion;  appoints  papal  legates  (ambassa- 
dors to  various  European  courts);  calls  from 
all  Christendom  for  money -contributions, 
the  expenditure  of  which  he  himself  directs ; 
final  judge  in  all  cases  pertaining  to  arch- 
bishops and  bishops ;  maker  of  all  new  canon 
law,  and  final  judge  in  regard  to  the  old. 

Decide  in  cases  of  conflicting  authority  be- 
tween popes ;  determine  what  is  heretical 
and  what  orthodox  in  regard  to  points  of  dis- 
puted doctrine. 

Same  as  before ;  ecclesiastical  rulers  of  prov- 
inces and  towns,  under  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  pope;  judges,  amenable  to 
pope  and  papal  legates. 


1  Cardinals,  ecclesiastics  chosen  by  the  pope  f«.r  his  chief  advisers  and 
administrators. 


338 


STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Secular  clergy. 

Monastic    orders    author- 
ized by  pope. 


Mendicant  orders,  Domin- 
icans and  Franciscans. 

Military  orders,  authorized 
by  the  pope,  who  con- 
firms or  appoints  their 
masters  or  generals. 

Papal  legates. 


Same  as  before ;  resident  preachers  and  pas- 
tors under  the  bishops. 

Same  as  before ;  bound  together  by  oaths  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  living  in 
communities  under  strict  rules  of  labor  and 
worship. 

Bound  by  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedi- 
ence ;  itinerant  preachers,  living  on  the  alms 
of  the  people. 

Bound  by  the  vows  of  pc  verty,  chastity,  and 
obedience,  and  enjoined  to  duties  of  hospi- 
tality and  of  arms,  exercised  in  behalf  of 
pilgrims,  and  in  general  of  Christians  in  the 
East ;  defend  and  hold  Eastern  fortresses. 

Represent  the  interests  of  the  pope  at  various 
courts ;  ambassadors ;  plenipotentiaries  of  the 
pope,  whose  decisions  overrule  those  of  bish- 
ops and  archbishops  in  disputed  cases. 


All  this  body  of  clergy  claim  and  obtain  freedom  from 
all  taxation  by  secular  princes,  excepting  only  feudal 
dues  and  voluntary  grants;  they  are  also  generally  free 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  secular  courts,  being  judged 
by  ecclesiastics. 

c.    The  G-uild. 

In  the  towns  of  this  period  we  see  men  binding  them- 
selves together  in  Cruilds  ;  their  organization  may  best  be 
studied  from  the  following  extracts  from  their  consti- 
tutions :  — 

From  the  Guild  of  Berwick-on- Tweed,  1283-1284. 
"  Common  fines  shall  go  into  the  stock  of  thj  guild.  Brethren 
shall  bequeath  something  to  the  guild,  if  they  make  wills.  If 
a  brother  be  foul-mouthed  to  another,  he  shall  be  fined ;  and, 
on  repetition,  shall  be  further  punished.  Heavy  fines  shall  be 
paid  for  bodily  hurt  done.  Weapons  shall  not  be  brought  to 
guild -meetings.  None  shall  be  taken  into  the  guild  without 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD.  339 

paying  at  least  forty  shillings,  saving  the  sons  and  daughters  of 
guildmen.  Help  shall  be  given  to  poor  and  ailing  brethren. 
Dowries  shall  be  given  to  poor  maidens  of  good  repute  [in  the 
guild].  Poor  brethren  shall  be  buried  at  the  cost  of  the  guild. 
Help  shall  be  given  to  brethren  charged  with  wrong-doing.  If 
the  brother  has  been  rightly  charged,  he  shall  be  dealt  with  as 
the  aldermen l  and  brethren  think  well.  No  lepers  shall  come 
into  the  borough,  a  place  for  them  being  kept  outside  the  town. 
No  dung  or  dust-heaps  shall  be  put  near  the  banks  of  the  Tweed. 

"  Underhand  dealings  in  the  way  of  trade  shall  be  punished. 
If  any  one  buy  goods,  misled  by  false  top  samples,  amends  must 
be  made.  Forestalling  of  the  market  shall  not  be  allowed. 
Wools  and  hides  shall  not  be  engrossed  by  a  few  buyers.  The 
affairs  of  the  borough 2  shall  be  managed  by  twenty-four  discreet 
men  of  the  town,  chosen  thereto,  together  with  the  mayor  and 
four  provosts.  The  mayor  and  provosts  shall  be  chosen  by  the 
commonalty. 

"  Bewray ers  of  the  guild  shall  be  heavily  punished.  Out- 
dwelling  brethren  of  the  guild  must  deal  in  the  town  on  market- 
days.  .  .  . 

"  No  woman  shall  buy  at  one  time  more  than  a  chaldron  (36 
bushels)  of  oats  for  making  beer  to  sell.  .  .  .  Whoever  buys  a 
lot  of  herrings,  shall  share  them,  at  cost  price,  with  the  neigh- 
bors present  at  the  buying. . .  .  Tanned  leathers,  brought  in  by 
outsiders,  must  be  sold  in  open  market  and  on  market-day.  .  .  . 
No  one  shall  have  more  than  two  pair  of  mill-stones." 

The  Carpenters'  Guild  at  Norwich  promises  ' '  help  to  those 
fallen  into  poverty  or  mishap,  if  not  brought  about  through  folly 
or  riotous  living." 

From  the  Lancaster  Guild  of  the  Holy  Trinity  and  St.  Leonard. 
"  No  guild-brother  shall  wrong  the  wife  or  daughter  or  sister 
of  another,  nor  shall  allow  her  to  be  wronged  so  far  as  he  can 
hinder  it." 

1  Aldermen,  =  Eldermen,  the  chief  elected  officers  of  the  guild. 

2  In  this  case  all  the  citizens  of  the  borough  were  guildsraen. 


340  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTOKY. 

"A  wax  light  shall  be  kept  burning  before  the  holy  cross, 
on  the  days  when  they  go  in  procession  in  honor  of  the  holy 
cross." 

"None  of  them  shall  work  after  dinner  on  Saturdays,  nor 
on  any  days  which  they  ought  to  keep  as  festivals,  according  to 
the  law  of  the  Church. 

"  If  any  one  wishes  to  learn  the  craft,  no  one  shall  teach  it  to 
him  until  he  has  given  twopence  to  the  wax  [for  the  light] . 

"  If  any  of  the  brotherhood  is  justly  charged  with  theft  to  the 
value  of  a  penny,  he  shall  be  put  out  of  the  company." 

From  the  Bakers'  Guild  at  Exeter. 

"  Search  shall  be  made  at  hucksters'  houses  for  bread  made 
outside  the  town.  Such  bread  is  forfeited. 

"  Horse  loaves  shall  be  made  two  for  a  penny,  of  clean  beans  ; 
otherwise,  a  fine  must  be  paid,  which  goes  half  to  the  city  and 
half  to  the  guild.  No  baker  shall  be  allowed  in  the  town,  unless 
a  freeman,  and  also  one  of  the  guild." 

d.    The  Town. 

The  organization  and  relations  of  the  town  may  be  seen 
in  the  following  extracts  and  summaries  of  various  town- 
charters  :  — 

From  the  English  Charter  of  Leicester. 

"  The  townsmen  made  a  covenant  with  the  Earl  of  Leicester 
that  they  should  give  him  threepence  yearly  for  each  house  in 
the  High  Street  that  had  a  gable,  on  condition  that  he  should 
grant  to  them  that  the  twenty-four  jurors  who  were  in  Leices- 
ter from  ancient  times  should  from  that  time  forward  discuss 
and  decide  all  pleas  they  might  have  among  themselves." 

From  French  Charters  given  by  the  King  to  Orleans  (of  twelfth 

century,  but  typical  of  this  period) . 

""We  will  and  order  that  all  men  who  live  and  shall  live  at 
Orleans  be  henceforth  free  and  exempt  from  all  tax  and  duty, 
and  we  will  seize  neither  them  nor  their  goods,  their  wives, 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  341 

sons,  nor  daughters,  and  will  do  them  no  violence,  so  long  as 
they  desire  to  and  do  receive  the  judgment  of  our  court.  .  .  . 
Now  we  make  them  all  these  concessions,  on  condition  that  all 
those  to  whom  we  give  this  grace  .  .  .  henceforth,  each  year, 
upon  each  four  gallons  of  wine  or  corn  which  they  shall  have, 
shall  pay  us  two  deniers.1  .  .  .  Now,  every  year,  we  will  send 
to  Orleans  one  of  the  people  who  serve  us  in  our  house,  and 
who,  with  our  other  sergeants  in  the  town,  and  ten  good  burghers 
[peers],  whom  the  burghers  of  the  town  shall  elect  in  common, 
shall  annually  collect  this  tax  of  bread  and  wine.  .  .  .  All  men 
dwelling  within  the  inclosure  of  the  walls  of  the  town  and  in 
the  suburbs,  of  whatever  seignior  the  land  which  they  inhabit 
be  held,  shall  swear  to  the  borough,  unless  some  of  them  abstain 
by  the  advice  of  the  peers,  and  of  those  who  have  sworn  the 
borough.  ...  If  he  who  has  committed  a  crime  take  refuge  in 
any  strong  castle,  the  peers  of  the  borough  shall  confer  with  the 
seignior  of  the  castle.  And  if  satisfaction  be  done  upon  the 
enemy  of  the  borough  according  to  their  sentence,  let  that  suf- 
fice ;  but  if  the  seignior  refuse  satisfaction,  they  shall  them- 
selves do  justice,  according  to  their  judgment,  upon  his  property 
or  his  men.  .  .  .  The  peers  of  the  borough  shall  swear  to 
favor  no  one  out  of  friendship,  and  to  give  up  no  one  out 
of  enmity,  and  do  all  things  in  justice  according  to  their 
conviction.  .  .  ."  Under  Philip  Augustus,  "  Thirteen  peers 
are  to  be  elected  in  the  borough,  among  whom,  if  it  be  the 
wish  of  those  who  have  sworn  the  borough,  one  or  two  shall  be 
made  mayors." 

The  Charter  of  Beaumont,  granted  by  its  Bishop,  "  made  all 
the  inhabitants  of  the  commune  of  Beaumont  proprietors  of  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  land  to  give  them  means  of  subsistence, 
with  the  use  of  the  woods  and  water-courses ;  every  precaution 
was  taken  to  prevent  fraud  in  commerce  and  trade,  especially 
in  regard  to  the  millers,  the  bakers,  and  the  butchers ;  and  the 
administration  of  the  commune  was  entrusted  to  a  number  of 
burghers,  elected  by  the  most  notable  citizens." 

1  A  French  coin  of  less  value  than  an  English  penny. 


342  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

STUDY    ON    I. 

In  whose  interest  are  the  assemblies  of  estates  evidently  called 
together?  For  what  object?  What  does  the  presence  of  the  third 
estate  show  in  regard  to  its  wealth?  What  kind  of  importance  do 
these  assemblies  give  to  this  estate?  What  does  the  composition  of 
the  third  estate  in  England  show  ? 

What  characterizes  the  organization  of  the  Church?  Of  what 
advantage  is  this  characteristic  ?  What  acts  as  a  check  on  the  central 
power?  At  what  part  of  its  organization  has  the  Church  entirely  sepa- 
rated itself  from  the  empire  ?  What  actual  material  powers  has  the 
papacy  at  its  command?  What  kinds  of  power  does  it  exercise? 
What  spirit  in  the  Church  is  embodied  in  the  mendicant  orders  ?  In 
the  military  orders?  What  point  of  contact  has  this  organization 
with  a  ?  In  what  way  is  the  papacy  better  as  a  form  of  government 
than  an  ordinary  monarchy?  What  two  points  of  Church  organization 
threaten  the  prosperity  and  peace  of  states  ? 

What  class  of  men  compose  the  guilds?  Make  a  list  of  the  objects 
of  guilds.  What  is  their  attitude  toward  morality?  Peace?  Pub- 
lic cleanliness  and  health  ?  Of  what  value  is  each  of  these  things  to 
the  guildsmen?  What  is  the  political  organization  of  the  guild? 
Make  a  list  of  all  the  benefits  you  can  think  of  as  likely  to  result  from 
such  organizations  to  the  guildsmen.  To  the  community  at  large. 
Towards  what  injustice  do  you  see  a  tendency?  What  two  bonds  of 
union  exist  within  them?  What  do  they  constantly  seek  to  pre- 
vent in  trade  ?  What  do  the  extracts  tell  you  of  the  position  of  women 
in  the  class  represented  by  the  guilds  ?  What  great  difference  between 
the  relation  existing  between  men  of  the  same  occupation  in  the  same 
town  then  and  now  ? 

What  kind  of  power  are  the  towns  gaining?  Men  of  what  occu- 
pations and  classes  are  gaining  this  power?  What  is  the  political 
constitution  of  the  towns  ?  What  power  have  they  by  which  to  gain 
liberties  and  privileges?  Whose  power  must  decline,  theirs  rising? 
What  kinds  of  oppression  and  injustice  evidently  existed  before  the 
granting  of  their  charters?  Whom  will  they  favor,  kings  or  nobles, 
and  why?  How  is  the  work  of  the  towns  and  guilds  now  done? 

In  General.  —  It  may  be  said  that  this  is  a  period  in  which  powers 
and  classes  are  being  defined;  give  illustrations  from  the  organizations. 
What  sort  of  organizations  are  the  town  and  the  guild  as  contrasted 
with  the  kingdom,  the  empire,  and  the  papacy?  What  general  effect 
would  they  have  on  peace  and  order?  On  political  independence  ? 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  343 

2.  Summary  of  Events,  1215-1492. 

a.   In  the  Empire. 

Jenghiz  Khan  and  his  Mogul  successors  ravage 
Eastern  Europe,  threatening  the  empire.  —  Con- 
stant strife  of  papal  [G-uelf~\  and  imperial  [G-hi- 
belin~\  parties  over  disputed  rights  of  appointment  and  of 
jurisdiction  in  various  territorial  possessions,  notably  in 
Sicily.  —  The  emperor  grants  bishops  and  nobles  legal 
sovereignty  in  their  own  domains  when  he  is  not  in  person 
present. 

"  Great  Interregnum  "  ;  the  electors  being  di- 
vided in  their  votes  for  emperor,  the  pope  threat- 
ens to  appoint  one  if  they  do  not  choose.  They 
then  elect  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  founder  of  the  House  of 
Austria,  and  the  pope  confirms  their  choice.  —  During  this 
time,  the  Duke  of  Poland  has  himself  crowned  its  king, 
and  Poland  thus  becomes  independent  of  the  empire.  — 
The  pope  offers  the  crown  of  Sicily  to  the  French  count 
of  Anjou,  who  conquers  it  by  force  of  arms.  —  More  than 
sixty  cities  of  the  empire,  under  the  lead  of  archbishops, 
form  the  League  of  the  Rhine,  for  mutual  defence  against 
the  nobles.  About  the  same  time,  eighty  other  German 
cities  form  the  League  of  the  Hanse,  with  Lubeck,  Cologne, 
Brunswick,  and  Dantzig  at  their  head.  This  league  has 
four  principal  foreign  stations,  —  London,  Bruges,  Bergen, 
and  Novgorod.  Its  objects  are,  common  defence,  security 
of  routes  by  land  and  sea,  a  court  of  arbitration  in  case  of 
dispute,  and  the  extension  of  trade  to  foreign  parts. 

Wars  and  dissensions  of  nobles,  princes,  cities, 
parties,  and  emperors ;  the  papal  chair  [1309]  is 
removed  from  Rome  to  Avignon,  which  is  the 
pope's  residence  during  nearly  the  whole  century.  —  The 
three  forest  cantons  of  Switzerland  form  a  league  for  mut- 
ual defence.  —  The  island  of  Sicily  revolts  against  Anjou, 


344  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

and  chooses  a  Spaniard  of  the  House  of  Aragon  for  its  king. 
Thus  "The  Two  Sicilies"  were  separated,  one  being  under 
French,  one  under  Spanish  rule. —  In  1338,  the  electors  of 
the  empire  declare  that  "  the  imperial  dignity  is  derived 
from  God  alone,"  that  "  it  is  by  their  choice  "  the  titles  of 
king  and  emperor  are  given ;  and  that  it  is  unnecessary  for 
the  pope  either  to  approve  or  confirm. 

In  Rome,  Cola  di  Rienzi,  who  takes  the  title  of  tribune 
of  the  people,  attempts  to  revive  the  old  Roman  republic. — 
In  1356,  the  emperor,  Charles  IV.,  issues  the  Golden  Bull, 
by  which  it  is  formally  declared  that  the  emperor  shall 
gain  his  office  by  the  choice  of  the  seven  electors  of  the 

empire. 

Continued    residence    of    popes    at   Avignon ; 

continued  wars  of  parties  and  cities  in  Italy. 
"  Great   Schism   of    the    West,"    caused   by    a 

double  election    of    popes,  one  at  Rome,  one  at 

Avignon,  dividing  the  allegiance  of  Western 
Europe.  A  series  of  Church  councils  are  held,  to  settle 
the  papal  disputes,  and  to  try  to  limit  the  papal  power ;  a 
settlement  is  finally  accomplished  by  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance, which  is  called  by  the  emperor,  and  elects  a  single 
pope  to  rule  from  Rome.  By  this  same  council,  John 
Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague  are  burned,  because  they  are 
preaching  through  Bohemia  doctrines  opposed  to  the 
papacy,  following  the  lead  of  Wiclif,  who  had  preached 
similar  doctrines  in  England. 

War  in  Bohemia  between  the  followers  of 
Huss  and  the  king.  A  large  and  formidable 
body  of  the  former,  under  the  narrfte  of  Taborites, 
cry  out  for  "equality!  no  more  kings  !  no  more  priests  !  " 
During  this  time  the  imperial  dignity  passes  permanently 
to  the  House  of  Austria.  —  War  between  the  various  Italian 
cities;  war  between  cities  and  military  adventurers  and 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD.  345 

lords  of  the  empire ;  the  cities  sometimes  independent, 
sometimes  in  leagues,  sometimes  under  the  tyranny  of 
other  cities,  sometimes  under  that  of  a  wealthy  family. 

b.  In  the  East. 

Jerusalem  is  retaken  by  Mohammedans  (Chorasmians), 
who  are  fleeing  from  the  Moguls,  and  the  Christian  king- 
dom of  Jerusalem  ends ;  the  Moguls  seize  upon  Bagdad, 
thus  ending  its  caliphate  in  1258.  —  Constantinople  is  re- 
gained by  the  Greek  emperors,  1261,  and  held  by  them 
until  1453,  when,  after  vain  appeals  to  the  West,  and 
promises  of  reunion  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Church, 
it  is  taken  by  the  Ottoman  Turks,  and  made  the  capital  of 
Turkey  in  Europe  ;  the  Turkish  conquest  of  Greece  and 
the  Greek  islands  soon  follows. 

c.  In  France. 

*****  '   1215  TO  1236.  I 


Time  of  Lewis  IX.,  the  Saint.  War  of  the 
barons  against  the  king,  whom  Paris  and  all  the 
communes  (towns)  of  France  swear  to  defend. 
Unsuccessful  struggle  of  the  bishops  against  the  king.  In 
all  these  troubles,  Blanche  of  Castile,  the  king's  mother,  is 
the  regent  of  the  realm,  the  king  being  a  minor. 

New  war  of  barons,  with  some  help  from  England, 
against  the  king ;  the  king  proclaims  that  every  baron 
holding  fiefs  both  under  him  and  the  English  king  must 
choose  one  of  them  for  his  master ;  most  of  them  choose 
Lewis. — Two  unsuccessful  crusades,  one  practically  end- 
ing in  Egypt,  and  one  in  Tunis. 

During  this  reign,  the  royal  domain  is  enlarged  towards 
the  south  by  purchase  and  by  conquest. 

The  whole  of  Toulouse  falls  to  the  crown  on 
the  death  of  its  childless  count.  —  The  king,  in  want 
of  money,  taxes  the  clergy,  sells  privileges  to 


346  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

towns,  and  freedom  to  serfs ;  the  pope  issues  a  bull,  for- 
bidding the  clergy  to  pay  taxes  to  any  civil  power,  without 
his  permission.  Thereupon,  a  violent  quarrel  arises  be- 
tween the  pope  and  the  king ;  the  latter  calls  to  his  sup- 
port the  estates  of  France,  —  the  nobility,  the  clergy,  the 
burghers  or  third  estate.  This  meeting  of  the  estates  at 
Paris  is  the  first  "  States-General."  This  body  declares  for 
the  king :  revolt  in  Flanders ;  the  French  nobility  march 
to  put  it  down,  but  are  beaten  by  the  Flemish  burghers, 
and  their  golden  spurs  are  hung  as  trophies  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  Courtrai.  In  this  "  Battle  of  the  Spurs  "  many 
lords  of  fiefs  perished.  Continued  quarrel  of  king  and 
pope.  The  king  grants  the  independence  of  Flanders, 
except  from  his  feudal  lordship.  The  knights  templars 
are  suppressed,  and  their  wealth  passes  to  the  king. 

Hundred  years'   war   between    England    and 
France.      Edward    III.    of    England  claims   the 
right   to   the    French  throne   and   the   lands   of 
Aquitaine ;  war  follows.     Under  Edward  III.  and  his  son, 
the  Black  Prince,  the  English  win  the  victories  of  Crecy 
and   Poitiers ;    later   still   they  win   Agincourt,  and   the 
English  right  to  the  throne  is  conceded.     France  Defuses, 
to  acknowledge   the  treaty,  and  war  continues.    /Jeanne 
'  d'Arc,    claiming   the  direct   inspiration  of   God, /appears, 
""rouses  the  French  to  enthusiasm  and  faith.     They  drive 
the    English   from    France,  and   the   whole   land   except 
Calais  comes  under  the  lordship  of  the  king  of    France. 
/Jeanne  d'Arc,  delivered  a  captive  to  the  English,  is  burned 
for  witchcraft  and  heresy.  / 

In  the  midst  of  the  war  comes  the  Black  Death,  taking 
half  the  population  and  visiting  all  ranks;  the  king,  in 
need  of  money  for  the  war,  convokes  the  States-General ; 
the  nobles  vote  for  war  and  taxes,  the  clergy  and  the 
third  estate  ask  delay  and  reform.  In  this  demand,  Etieniie 


348  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Marcel,  provost  of  the  Paris  merchants,  leads ;  the  king, 
paying  no  heed,  and  dismissing  the  estates,  Paris  is  forti- 
fied. The  king  still  delaying  reform,  Paris  revolts,  and 
demands  (1)  taxes  levied  by  the  States-General;  (2) 
checks  to  the  extravagance  of  the  court;  (3)  reform  in 
the  administration  of  justice;  (4)  good  money;  (5) 
the  arming  of  all  men  as  a  national  guard.  The  king 
promises  to  yield  to  the  conditions ;  breaks  his  promise. 
Paris  revolts  again ;  war  between  the  king  and  Paris ; 
meanwhile,  in  the  country,  Jacques  (the  peasant)  rises 
against  the  nobles  "  with  iron-shod  sticks  and  knives " ; 
this  revolt  is  known  as  a  "  Jacquerie  "  ;  castles  are  ruined 
and  burned,  nobles  and  peasants  slain ;  but  the  peasants 
in  the  country,  and  the  burghers  in  Paris,  are  alike  sub- 
dued by  king  and  noble. 

The  great  nobles  and  lords  form  the  "  League 
of  the    Public  Good,"  and   make  war  on   king 
Lewis  XI.  in  behalf  of  their  ancient  independence 
and  privilege,  but  the  king  at  last  subdues  them. 

During  this  time  the  territorial  gains  of  the  French 
monarchy  are  as  follows  :  Dauphiny  and  Montpellier  are 
bought  from  their  heirs ;  Provence  on  the  death  of  its  last 
count  goes  to  the  French  king;  Aquitaine  is  conquered 
from  the  English  in  the  hundred  years'  war ;  Burgundy  is 
annexed  by  Lewis  XL  By  sale,  inheritance,  dowry,  or 
conquest,  the  royal  domain  in  France  very  nearly  comes 
to  correspond  to  that  indicated  in  the  map,  p.  397. 

STUDY  ON   2. 

Make  a  list  jof  all  the  signs  of  weakness  that  you  see  in  the  imperial 
office.  What  signs  that  the  towns  are  strong?  The  Church?  The 
nobles?  What  proof  that  no  one  of  these  powers  predominates? 
Name  two  evidences  of  the  special  relation  between  France  and  the 
papacy.  What  evidences  of  German  hostility  to  the  papacy?  What 
political  reason  for  this  hostility  ?  What  is  meant  by  referring  to  the 


LATEH   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  349 

imperial  title  as  a  dignity  rather  than  a  power?    What  states  come  to 
an  end  during  this  period,  what  begin,  and  what  are  fully  formed? 

What  strong  parties  appear  in  France,  and  how  related  ?  Compare 
with  Germany.  Of  what  value  is  the  enlargement  of  the  royal  do- 
main? What  new  powers  and  resources  does  the  king  thus  gain? 
What  does  the  king  appear  to  feel  an  especial  need  for  during  this 
period  ?  What  gain  to  the  people  arises  from  this  necessity  ?  What 
special  reason  why  the  desire  for  territorial  possession  should  be  a  cause 
of  war  between  England  and  France  ?  Why  should  the  nobles  vote 
for  war?  Why  the  clergy  for  peace?  Why  the  third  estate?  What 
evils  evidently  exist  in  France  at  the  time  of  this  war  ?  On  the  whole, 
what  part  of  the  state  gains  power  during  this  period,  and  by  what 
means  ? 

d.   In  England. 

The  barons  in  arms   under  Stephen   Langton,  i 

Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  with    the    nation  to 
back  them,  demand  of  John  the  signing  of  the 


1216 

TO 


1272. 


Great  Charter  (Magna  Charta),  in  confirmation  of  ancient 
rights ;  at  Runnymede  they  force  him  to  sign  it;  the  pope 
excommunicates  the  barons ;  war  between  them  and  the 
royal  and  papal  forces;  John  dies,  and  the  charter  is  pro- 
claimed in  the  name  of  his  successor,  Henry  III. 

The  king  wanting  money,  gets  it  on  condition 
of  a  fresh  confirmation  of  the  charter ;  the  pope 
needs  money,  and  sends  to  England  for  it ;  the  ^ 
king  promises  it;  the  barons  refuse,  but  a  tithe  of  all  cleri- 
cal property  is  demanded ;  the  king  surrounds  himself  with 
foreigners,  to  whom  he  gives  much  money,  and  with  whom 
he  keeps  an  extravagant  court ;  again  in  need  of  money, 
he  calls  the  great  council  of  the  realm ;  they  grant  it  on 
condition  of  economy  and  confirmation  of  the  charter ;  the 
king  promises,  but  breaks  his  faith ;  the  clergy  complain  of 
the  heavy  papal  taxes  that  are  sanctioned  by  the  king; 
under  the  lead  of  Simon  de  Montfort  the  baronage  in 
arms  demand  their  liberties  from  the  crown.  The  king 


350  STUDIES  IN  GENERAL   HISTORY. 

yields  and  makes  new  promises;  breaks  them,  the  pope  ab- 
solving him  from  his  oath ;  the  barons  and  the  towns,  under 
Simon,  make  fresh  war  upon  him ;  the  king  is  captured,  and 
Simon  calls  a  parliament,  summoning  nobles,  clergy,  and 
commons  ;  the  latter  comprising  knights,  two  elected  from 
each  shire,  and  citizens,  two  from  every  borough.  War 
continues,  but  finally  ends  with  the  fresh  confirmation  of 
the  rights  of  the  realm,  and  the  promise  that  taxation  shall 
only  be  imposed  with  the  consent  of  the  great  council. 

Edward  1.  reigning,  confirms  the  charter  and 
keeps  his  word.  Needs  money  for  conquest  of 
Wales ;  parliament  grants  him  a  tax  on  every  sack 
of  wool  exported;  Wales  is  subdued  and  joined  to  the 
English  realm.  War  threatens  from  Scotland  and  from 
France ;  Edward  calls  (1295)  a  parliament  of  the  realm 
to  aid  him  with  counsel  and  gold ;  to  it  he  calls  knights, 
nobles,  barons,  clergy,  and  two  burgesses,  "from  every 
city,  borough,  and  leading  town."  The  money  granted  is 
spent  in  the  war,  and  more  required;  tax  on  wool  is 
raised  and  grows  oppressive;  forced  contributions  of 
money  and  corn ;  barons  revolt ;  Edward  confesses  himself 
wrong;  is  granted  new  moneys  by  clergy  and  commons 
in  return  for  the  confirmation  of  their  rights,  and  the 
promise  not  to  tax  without  the  consent  of  the  taxed. 
Victory  over  the  Scotch  under  Wallace,  but  new  war 
against  them  under  their  new  leader,  Bruce,  in  the  midst 
of  which  King  Edward  dies. 

Contests  between  the  royal  power  and  the 
baronage  over  supplies  and  charters ;  the  Scotch 
war  pressSs ;  the  king  confirms  the  charters  before 
given,  and  parliament  grants  supplies;  the  Scotch  under 
Bruce  beat  the  English  at  Bannockburn;  truce  between 
England  and  Scotland  made  by  the  king  under  the  influ- 
ence of  his  favorites ;  parliament  thereupon  deposes  him 


LATER   MEDIEVAL  PERIOD.  351 

on  the  charges  of  "indolence,  incapacity,  the  loss  of  Scot- 
land, the  violation  of  his  coronation  oath,  oppression  of 
the  Church  and  baronage,"  and  his  son  reigns  in  his  stead 
under  a  council  of  barons.  Scotch  war  renewed;  all 
south  of  the  Frith  of  Forth  is  ceded  to  England,  and  hom- 
age is  done  for  the  rest.  Hundred  years'  war  breaks  out, 
and  Scotland  becomes  independent.  Constant  war ;  con- 
stant demand  on  the  part  of  the  king  for  money ;  parlia- 
ment meets  every  year,  and  many  laws  favorable  to  the 
trading  classes  are  passed;  the  House  of  Commons  sits 
as  a  separate  body,  and  its  petitions  often  become  law. 

Victories  over  the  French,  at  Crecy,  Calais,  Poitiers; 
meanwhile  the  exactions  of  the  court  of  Avignon  increase, 
the  pope  appoints  foreigners  to  English  livings,  and  finally 
demands  the  payment  of  the  annual  sum  promised  by 
John  Lackland,  in  token  of  the  temporal  lordship  of  Rome. 
King  Edward  refers  the  matter  to  parliament.  Both 
houses  answer  that  "  neither  King  John  nor  any  king  can 
put  himself,  his  kingdom,  nor  his  people,  under  subjection 
save  with  their  accord  or  assent."  Wiclif,  scholar  and 
preacher  at  Oxford  University,  boldly  preaches  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  English  Church,  and  attacks  the  practices 
and  the  doctrines  of  Rome.  His  followers  are  known  as 
'•'•Lollards''  and  their  revolt  against  established  belief 
and  practice  produces  much  agitation  and  disturbance 
(Lollardry). 

In  the  midst  of  the  French  war  comes  the  '•'•Black  Death," 
destroying  more  than  half  the  English  folk.  Laborers  ask 
for  higher  wages;  employers  refuse  them;  taxes  grow 
heavier.  The  peasants  revolt,  demanding  the  abolition  of 
serfdom ;  by  fair  promises  the  king  disperses  them.  Their 
leaders  are  punished,  and  the  king  refuses  to  keep  his 
word ;  nevertheless,  from  that  time  serfage  begins  to  dis- 
appear and  labor  to  be  paid  in  wages. 


352  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

"  Wars  of  the  Roses " ;  wars  between  the 
houses  of  York  (white  rose)  and  Lancaster 
(red  rose)  over  their  rights  of  succession  to  the 
English  crown ;  settled  at  last  by  the  marriage  of  a  York 
and  a  Lancaster,  from  which  union  springs  the  Tudor  line 
of  the  sixteenth  century. 

e.   In  Other  Countries  of  Europe. 

In  Spain  and  Portugal  continual  strife  of  Christian  and 
Moor ;  the  Arabs  driven  back  to  the  sole  possession  of 
Granada ;  Sicily  joined  to  Aragon;  just  before  the  sixteenth 
century,  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  Castile 
and  Aragon  are  united ;  by  conquest  of  Ferdinand,  Gre- 
nada is  freed  from  the  Moors  and  joined  to  the  Spanish 
realm.  —  In  1283  the  General  Privilege,  the  Magna  Charta 
of  Aragon,  is  granted,  which  provides  for  the  fair  and  open 
administration  of  justice,  for  defining  the  powers  of  cities, 
for  securing  property  against  the  arbitrary  use  of  crown, 
for  preserving  the  privileges  of  towns  and  nobles.  In  the 
north  and  east  of  Europe,  a  crusade  is  preached  against  the 
heathen  of  the  Baltic,  to  which  the  pope  and  the  emperor 
commission  the  Order  of  Teutonic  Knights,  who  win  from 
heathendom  Prussia  and  Baltic  lands  adjoining.  —  The 
Moguls  invade  Europe  and  conquer  Russia,  which  comes 
again,  however,  under  native  rule  before  the  close  of  the 
period.  —  Hungary  and  Poland  become  the  bulwarks  of 
Christendom  against  the  Turk,  beating  him  back  south- 
ward from  the  imperial  frontier. 

STUDY    ON    d. 

Make  a  list  of  the  facts  in  England  which  correspond  to  facts  in 
France  during  this  same  time.  What  great  difference  do  you  notice 
in  the  outcome  of  events  in  these  two  countries  ?  What  occupation 
would  seem  to  be  a  source  of  English  wealth,  which  we  have  not 


LATER  MEDLEY AL  PERIOD. 


353 


noticed  on  the  continent  as  such?  Give  two  indications  pointing  to 
this  conclusion.  What  great  and  constant  check  on  despotism  in 
England?  What  new  class  appears  as  a  contending  party  in  Eng- 
land ?  What  indication  that  this  class  is  more  intelligent  in  England 
than  in  France  ?  How  far  is  this  a  proof  ?  What  relation  between  the 
"  Black  Death  "  and  the  demand  for  higher  wages  ?  How  is  a  wage- 
laborer  better  off  than  a  serf  ?  A  serf  than  a  slave  ?  How  does  the 
power  of  Ferdinand,  king  of  Spain,  compare  with  that  of  other  kings  ? 
Why? 

In  General.  —  Against  what  barbaric  races  is  Europe  called  upon 
to  protect  herself?  What  additions  are  made  to  the  European  com- 
monwealth ?  What  is  lost  to  it  ?  What  fact  do  you  see  common  to 
the  Empire,  France,  England,  Spain?  What  to  the  Empire,  France, 
and  England  ?  What  general  cause  for  the  calling  of  estates  ?  What 
acts  as  a  check  upon  royal  power?  On  the  power  of  the  nobles? 
What  does  the  fact  that  the  events  in  each  country  must  be  treated 
separately  indicate  ? 


3.  List  of  Famous  Names  of  Period. 

a.    Thirteenth  Century  (1215-1300). 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Albertus 

Swabian  ;  of 

Student  at 

Follows  Abelard 

Latin. 

Magnus, 

old  family  ; 

Padua, 

with  caution  ;  stud- 

the "  Uni- 

student ; 

Bologna, 

ies,  teaches,  and 

versal 

Dominican 

Paris. 

writes  on  all  sub- 

Doctor." 

monk;  lec- 

jects then  pursued  ; 

tures  in 

seeks  in  natural 

Paris  and 

science  the  basis 

Cologne  ; 

of  knowledge  ; 

bishop. 

writes  on  proper- 

ties of  stones, 

plants,  and  ani- 

mals; author  of 

many  chemical  re- 

cipes ;  accused  of 

magic. 

354 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance, 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Alfonso  the 

Hereditary 

Life  at  his 

Has  Bible  translated 

Spanish. 

Wise,  of 

king  of 

father's 

into  Spanish; 

Castile. 

Castile. 

court  at 

author  of  poetical 

Castile. 

and  scientific 

works;  codifies 

Spanish  law  on 

basis  of  Roman 

and  native  laws. 

Aquinas, 

Neapolitan  ; 

Studies  at 

Lectures  at  Paris 

Latin. 

St.  Thomas, 

Dominican 

Naples  and 

to  great  audiences 

the  "Angel- 

monk ;  lec- 

Paris ;  pu- 

on theological 

ic  Doctor." 

tures  in 

pil  of 

philosophy  ;  his 

Paris,  and 

Albertus 

theology  forms 

many  Ital- 

Magnus. 

the  basis  of  that 

ian  towns. 

afterward  taught; 

- 

inclines  to  Real- 

ism ;  seeks  in 

theology  the 

basis  of  knowledge. 

Bacon, 

Franciscan 

Studies  at 

Realist;  author  of 

Latin. 

Roger, 

monk. 

Oxford  and 

the  "Great  Work," 

the  "  Ad- 

Paris. (See 

a  cyclopedia  of  the 

mirable 

Geber,  p. 

thirteenth  century 

Doctor." 

264.) 

knowledge  of 

geography,  mathe- 

matics, music, 

astrology,  physics, 

anatomy;  invents 

the  telescope  and 

discovers  gun- 

powder; accused 

of  heresy  and 

imprisoned. 

Clmabue. 

Florentine; 

Watches  the 

Fresco-painting, 

*    *    * 

of  noble 

Greek 

studied  from 

family. 

painters 

nature  ; 

who  had 

paints  for 

LATER  MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD. 


355 


Names, 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

been  called 

churches;  empha- 

to Florence 

sizes  expression 

to  decorate 

in  painting. 

a  chapel. 

Dominic,  St. 

Spaniard  ; 

Studies  at 

Religious  zealot  ; 

*     *     * 

of  honora- 

the Univer- 

champion of  the 

ble  family; 

sity  of  Sal- 

Church; becomes 

monk. 

amanca. 

a  mendicant 

preacher,  hoping 

to  work  reforms  in 

Church  abuses; 

establishes  the 

Dominican  order 

of  monks. 

Edward  I., 

King  of 

Life  of  camp 

Organizes  and  ar- 

English. 

1272-1307. 

England  by 

and  court, 

ranges  the  body 

hereditary 

abroad  and 

of  English  law  ; 

right. 

in  England. 

gives  form  to 

House  of  Com- 

mons; conquers 

Wales. 

(See  2.) 

Francis,  St., 

Italian  ;  son 

A  little 

Establishes  Francis- 

*   *    # 

of  Assisi. 

of  a  trades- 

study with 

can  order  of 

man  ;  monk. 

the  parish 

monks,  vowed 

priests. 

to  poverty  and 

simplicity 

of  life  ; 

preaches 

self-renunciation 

in  Illyrica,  Spain, 

Holy  Land,— 

everywhere 

gaining 

" 

disciples. 

356 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Grosseteste, 

English; 

Studied  law, 

Author  of  a  treatise 

Latin. 

Robert. 

bishop  of 

theology, 

on  the  sphere  ; 

Lincoln. 

and  medi- 

author of  about 

cine  at 

200  books  ;  trans- 

Oxford; 

lates  from  Greek  ; 

Greek  and 

poet,  writing  short 

Hebrew  at 

poems  on  moral  and 

Paris. 

religious  subjects. 

Joinville. 

French  ; 

Life  of 

Author  of  chronicles 

French. 

knight. 

camp  and 

of  the  Crusades, 

court. 

in  which  he  took 

part,  and  life  of 

St.  Lewis  ;  author 

of  a  chronicle  of 

contemporary 

events;  employed 

in  matters  of  state. 

Layamon. 

English  ; 

Studies  in 

Translates  Wace's 

English. 

priest. 

English 

Chronicle  of 

monastic 

Britain  (the 

school. 

"Brut"). 

Langton, 

English  ; 

Studies  at 

Involved  in  consti- 

Latin and 

Stephen. 

archbishop 

University 

tutional  struggles  ; 

English. 

of  Canter- 

of Paris; 

instigator  of  the 

bury  ;  chan- 

distin- 

demands of  the 

cellor;  mem- 

guished in 

Magna  Charta. 

ber  of  pope's 

theology 

household  ; 

and  philos- 

cardinal- 

ophy. 

V 

priest. 

Lewis,  St. 

King  of 

Educated  at 

Author  of  the 

French. 

France. 

court  under 

"  Establishments 

the  direc- 

of St.  Lewis,"  a  fa- 

tion of  his 

mous  collection  of 

mother, 

French  legislation, 

Blanche  of 

largely  modified  by 

Castile. 

Roman  lawt 

LATER   MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD. 


357 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Matthew 

English 

Studied  at 

Author  of  chronicle 

Latin  and 

Paris. 

monk; 

Paris  Uni- 

of contemporary 

French. 

friend  and 

versity  (?). 

events;  employed 

advisor  of 

in  matters  of  state. 

English 

king,~Henry 

III. 

Montfort, 

French  ; 

*    *    * 

See  2. 

French 

Simon  de. 

noble; 

and 

English 

English. 

king's 

seneschal 

and  am- 

bassador. 

Peter  de 

Italian  ; 

*    *    * 

Writes  a  cyclopedia 

Latin, 

Crescenzi. 

of  wealthy 

of  all  the  botanic 

translated 

Bolognese 

knowledge  of  his 

into 

family. 

time,  adding  there- 

French 

to  his  own  obser- 

and other 

vations;  this  work 

languages. 

goes  through  fif- 

teen or  twenty 

editions  before 

close  of  period. 

Polo,  Marco. 

Venetian  ; 

Travel  and 

Travels  in  Asia  and 

French 

high  officer 

life. 

dictates  an  account 

and 

of  Great 

of  his  travels, 

Italian. 

Khan  of 

which  is  published  ; 

Tartary. 

first  to  make  the 

existence  of  Japan 

known  to  Europe. 

Villehardou- 

Noble  and 

Life  of 

Author  of  "  Con- 

French. 

in. 

warrior  of 

camp  and 

quest  of  Constan- 

Cham- 

court ; 

tinople,"  very  pop- 

pagne. 

crusading. 

ular  in  the  middle 

ages. 

358  STUDIES  IK  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

b.    Names  of  Fourteenth  Century. 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Artevelde, 

Of  distin- 

Society and 

Leader  of  citizens 

*     *     * 

Jacob  van. 

guished  and 

politics. 

in  their  struggle 

wealthy 

for  independence 

family  ; 

against  the  Count 

member  of 

of  Flanders. 

brewer's 

guild,  which 

he  joins  to 

gain  influ- 

ence. 

Boccaccio. 

Italian  ;  son 

Studies  in 

Author  of  the  "  De- 

Italian. 

of  a  mer- 

Florence, 

cameron,"  a  series 

chant  ; 

travels  in 

of  stories  or  novels 

poet;  pat- 

France. 

based  on  real  life 

ronized  by 

or  on  mediaeval 

queen  of 

French  romances. 

Naples. 

Bruce, 

Scottish 

Life  in  camp 

Leader  of  Scotch 

Scotch. 

Eobert. 

noble;  king 

and  court. 

revolt  against  Eng- 

of Scotland. 

lish  rule  ;  compels 

recognition  of 

Scotch  independ- 

, 

ence. 

Chaucer. 

Londoner  ; 

Student  at 

Father  of  English 

English. 

son  of  a 

Oxford  or 

poetry  ;  author  of 

merchant  ; 

Cam- 

" Canterbury 

courtier, 

bridge^). 

Tales,"  a  series  of 

scholar, 

stories  told  in 

soldier, 

verse,  partly  origi- 

poet. 

nal,  partly  taken 

from  French, 

Italian,  and  classi- 

cal sources. 

Dante, 

Florentine 

Studies  the 

Author  of  the 

Italian. 

Alighieri. 

patrician. 

classics  ; 

"  Divine  Comedy," 

LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD. 


359 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

also  philos- 

a poem  describing 

ophy,      ( 

the  visions  of  a 

astrology, 

journey  through 

mathema- 

Hell, Purgatory, 

tics,  rhe- 

and Paradise; 

toric. 

lover  of  Beatrice, 

in  whose  honor  he 

writes  "  The  New 

Life." 

Froissart. 

Frenchman  ; 

Life  in  camp 

Author  of  "Chroni- 

French. 

priest,  poet, 

and  court. 

cles  "  of  contempo- 

musician. 

rary  French  and 

English  history. 

Giotto. 

Italian 

Pupil  of 

Paints  frescoes  for 

*    #    * 

shepherd- 

Cimabue. 

churches;  archi- 

boy. 

tect  of  the  famous 

bell-tower  of 

Florence  cathedral. 

Glanvil, 

English  ; 

Studies  at 

Compiles  a  cyclo- 

Latin, 

Bartholo- 

monk. 

Oxford, 

pedia  dealing  with 

translated 

mew. 

Paris, 

all  kinds  of  natu- 

into 

Rome. 

ral  objects,  which 

French, 

is  reprinted  ten 

English, 

times. 

Spanish, 

Dutch. 

Langland, 

English  ; 

Monastic. 

Author  of  the  "  Vis- 

English. 

William. 

monk. 

ion  of  Piers  Plow- 

man," a  satirical 

allegory  of  human 

life,  especially 

sharp  against  the 

clergy. 

Mandeville, 

English  ; 

Society  and 

Explores  parts  of 

French, 

Sir  John. 

knight. 

travel. 

Africa  and  Asia, 

English, 

and  writes  a  book 

Latin. 

of  his  travels. 

360 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Marcel, 

Son  of  a 

Business 

See  2. 

French. 

Etienne. 

Parisian 

and  affairs. 

draper  ; 

rich  mer- 

chant. 

Occam, 

English  ; 

Studies  at 

Nominalist;  lec- 

Latin. 

William  of, 

Franciscan 

Oxford;  at 

tures  at  Paris  ;  aids 

the  "  In- 

monk and 

Paris  with 

the  French  king  in 

vincible 

physician  ; 

Duns  Sco- 

his  quarrel  with 

Doctor." 

teacher  of 

tus. 

the  pope  ;  author 

theology. 

of  many  philosoph- 

ic and  theologi- 

cal works. 

Petrarch. 

Italian;  son 

Studies  the 

Author  of  sonnets 

Italian, 

of  a  no- 

classics ; 

in  honor  of  his 

Latin. 

tary;  poet 

lives  at 

lady  Laura  ;  found- 

and prose- 

courts. 

er  of  "  Humanism," 

writer, 

or  the  interest  in 

patronized 

the  life  and  litera- 

by various 

ture  of  classic 

princes  ; 

antiquity. 

ambassa- 

dor. 

Kienzi, 

Roman;  of 

Well- 

Attempts  to  re- 

Italian. 

Cola  di. 

obscure 

educated. 

store  the  ancient 

birth;  no- 

Roman liberties 

tary  ;  papal 

under  the  forms 

ambas-    - 

of  the  old  repub- 

sador. 

lic  ;  the  "  Last  of 

the  Tribunes." 

Tyler,  Wat. 

English 

*    *    * 

Leader  of  the  peo- 

English. 

peasant. 

ple  unsuccessfully 

revolting  against 

the  king  because 

of  oppressive 

taxation. 

LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD. 


361 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Wallace,  Sir 

Scotch 

Life  of 

Leader  in  Scottish 

Scotch. 

William. 

knight; 

camp  and 

wars  for  independ- 

guardian of 

court. 

ence. 

Scotland. 

Wiclif. 

English 

Studies  at 

Translates  the  Bible 

English. 

preacher 

Oxford. 

from  Latin  into 

and  lect- 

English; eloquent 

urer  at  Ox- 

preacher; urges 

ford;  pat- 

reform in  the  doc- 

ronized by 

trine  and  practice 

English 

of  the  Church; 

• 

king. 

denounces  the 

begging  friars 

(Dominicans  and 

Franciscans). 

i.    Names  of  Fifteenth  Century. 


^Eneas 

Italian;  of 

Studies  clas- 

One of  the  first 

Latin. 

Sylvius, 

old  but 

sics  and 

mathematicians 

Pius  II. 

poor  fami- 

law. 

of  his  age  ;  cosmdg- 

ly;  diplo- 

raphist; writes  on 

mat  for 

geography  and  his- 

emperors 

tory. 

and  popes  ; 

pope. 

Angelico, 

From  a 

Monastic 

Paints  miniatures 

*    #    * 

Fra. 

wealthy 

and  ele- 

for manuscripts  ; 

family  near 

mentary. 

also  many  pictures 

Florence  ; 

on  religious  and 

monk. 

scriptural  subjects 

for  churches. 

Brunelles- 

Florentine  ; 

Apprenticed 

Architect  of  the 

*    *     # 

chi. 

son  of  a 

to  a  gold- 

great dome  of 

notary  ; 

smith  ; 

Florence. 

member  of 

studies 

362 


STUDIES   IK   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

the  gold- 

sculpture, 

smith's 

perspective, 

guild. 

and  geome- 

try. 

Cardan. 

Son  of  a 

*    *    * 

Writes  a  famous 

Latin. 

lawyer  and 

treatise  on  mathe- 

physician ; 

matics;  writes 

professor 

also  on  scientific 

of  mathe- 

and philosophic 

matics  and 

subjects. 

medicine  at 

university 

of  Pavia. 

Caxton, 

English; 

Mercantile  ; 

First  English  prin- 

English 

William. 

merchant 

learns  art 

ter;  translates 

and  official. 

•  of  printing 

many  foreign 

in  Flanders. 

(mostly  French) 

works  into  English. 

Comines, 

French  ; 

Life  at 

Author  of  "  Me- 

French. 

Philip  de. 

noble  ; 

court. 

moirs,"  which  give 

councillor 

a  vivid  picture  of 

and  cham- 

Lewis XI.  and  his 

berlain  of 

time. 

King  Lewis 

XI. 

Cusanus 

German  ; 

Studies  law 

Writes  on  philoso- 

Latin. 

(Nicolas 

cardinal- 

and  mathe- 

phy ;  in  astronomy, 

Krebs). 

bishop. 

matics  at 

the  forerunner  of 

Padua  ; 

Copernicus  ; 

studies 

mathematician, 

theology. 

theologian,  philos- 

opher. 

Donatello. 

Florentine  ; 

Apprenticed 

Makes  beautiful 

*    *    # 

of  noble 

to  a  gold- 

statues and  carv- 

family ; 

smith  ; 

ings,  mostly  of 

sculptor 

studies 

religious  subjects  ; 

and  painter. 

antique 

studies  from 

models. 

nature. 

LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD. 


863 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance, 

£ducation. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Ghiberti. 

Florentine. 

Apprenticed 

Sculptor  of  reliefs 

*     *     * 

to  a  gold- 

on the  famous 

smith. 

bronze  doors  of 

the  Florence 

Baptistery;  sub- 

jects scriptural, 

but  studies  from 

nature;  famous 

jeweller. 

Gutenberg. 

German;  of 

*    *    * 

Invents  printing  by 

*     *     * 

noble 

movable  types. 

descent. 

Huss,  John. 

Bohemian  ; 

Studies  at 

Follower  of  Wiclif  ; 

Latin. 

peasant  ; 

University 

preacher  and 

professor 

of  Prague. 

writer;  accused 

in  Univer- 

of heresy,  and 

sity  of 

condemned  to 

Prague. 

death. 

Jeanne  d'Arc. 

French  ; 

Religious 

See  2. 

French. 

peasant- 

instruction 

girl. 

from  her 

mother. 

Jerome  of 

Bohemian  ; 

Studies  at 

Follower  of  Wiclif 

*    *    * 

Prague. 

of  good 

Prague, 

and  associate  of 

birth. 

Paris, 

Huss;  condemned 

Oxford. 

and  burned  for 

heresy. 

Kcnipis, 

German  ; 

Religious 

Reputed  author  of 

Latin. 

Thos.  a. 

monk. 

and  mon- 

the "  Imitation  of 

astic. 

Christ." 

Machiavelli. 

Florentine  ; 

Classical.  .  . 

Author  of  a  history 

Italian. 

of  the  pros- 

of Florence,  and 

perous  mid- 

of "The  Prince," 

dle  class  ; 

a  work  on  states- 

lawyer, 

manship,  showing 

clerk, 

how  princes  may 

diplomat. 

gain  and  keep  their 

power. 

364 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Masaccio. 

Italian;  son 

Studies  with 

Disregards  conven- 

*    *     * 

of  a  notary  ; 

other  Ital- 

tionalities of  for- 

belongs to 

ian  artists. 

mer  artists,  and 

a  guild  of 

studies  nature  for 

druggists, 

his  types. 

then  of 

painters. 

Medici, 

Wealthy 

Literary 

Founds  House  of 

*     *     * 

Cosimo  di. 

Florentine  ; 

and  com- 

Medici, long  the 

merchant. 

mercial 

practical  rulers  of 

culture. 

Florence;  imports 

into  Italy  many 

Greek  manu- 

scripts new  to 

Europe. 

Medici, 

Son  of 

Studies  with 

Ruler  of  Florence; 

*     *     * 

Lorenzo. 

Cosimo. 

famous 

statesman,  poet, 

men  of 

scholar;  patron 

letters  ; 

of  artists  and 

travels  to 

authors  ;  spends 

, 

various 

much  on  public 

European 

buildings  and 

courts. 

in  founding 

schools  and 

libraries. 

Mirandola. 

Italian;  of 

Studies  at 

Author  of  a  cyclo- 

Latin. 

princely 

Bologna 

pedia  of  mediaeval 

birth  ; 

and  other 

knowledge,  con- 

patronized 

universi- 

taining much  of  an 

by  the 

ties. 

astronomical  and 

Medici. 

mathematical 

nature  ;  attempts 

to  reconcile  re- 

ligion and  philoso- 

phy ;  condemned 

as  a  heretic. 

LATEK   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD. 


365 


Names. 

Birth  and 
Circumstance. 

Education. 

Cause  of  Fame. 

Language. 

Perugino. 

Italian  ; 
painter. 

Studies  with 
other 
Italian 
artists. 

Teacher  of  Raph- 
ael ;  paints  madon- 
nas, holy  families, 
and  other  scrip- 
tural subjects. 

*     *     * 

Savonarola. 

Ferrara;  of 

Studies 

Foretells  and 

Italian. 

noble  Ital- 
ian family  ; 
Dominican 
friar  ; 

Aristotle 
and 
Aquinas. 

preaches  the 
reformation  of  the 
Church. 

preacher. 

Van  Eycks, 
brothers 
and  sister. 

Flemings  ; 
court  paint- 
ers for 

Study 
with  father 
and  other 

Painters  ;  one  of 
them  reputed  to 
have  invented  oil- 

*    *    # 

various 
princes  and 
wealthy 
merchants. 

artists. 

painting,  so  much 
does  he  improve 
its  methods  ; 
pictures  of  madon- 
nas and  other 

scriptural  subjects  ; 

portraits. 

STUDY   ON   3. 

In  what  new  ways  do  men  now  achieve  greatness  ?  Men  of  what 
classes?  Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  directions  in  which  the 
intellect  manifests  itself.  In  what  country  is  each  manifestation 
strongest  ?  In  what  class  of  men  ?  What  classes  patronize  art  ? 
What  three  influences  enter  into  this  art?  What  intellectual  influ- 
ences are  felt  throughout  Europe?  What  do  you  notice  about  the 
laws  of  Spain,  France,  and  England  ?  What  about  language  in  Spain, 
France,  England,  Italy,  Germany?  What  countries  are  the  most 
famous  centres  of  learning?  Contrast  this  list  with  the  corresponding 
list,  pp.  236-240 ;  what  great  differences  strike  you  ?  In  what  new 
ways  are  men  educated  ?  What  relation  between  a  man's  education 
and  his  work?  What  activities  are  on  the  increase  during  these 
three  centuries  ?  What  on  the  decrease  ?  What  effects  of  crusading 
do  you  think  you  see  here  ? 


366  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


4.  List  of  Famous  Inventions,  Discoveries,  Enterprises, 
Foundations,  and  Works,   Unnamed  in  3. 

Cathedrals,  —  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris,  of  Cologne, 
Strasbourg,  Westminster  in  London,  York,  Exeter,  Canter- 
bury, Toledo,  Seville,  Milan,  Rheims,  Amiens,  Florence, 
Prague,  and  many  others.  French  and  Norman  architects 
very  generally  superintend  their  erection  ;  from  the  four- 
teenth century  on  these  cathedrals  are  decorated  with 
magnificent  windows  of  stained  glass.  —  Castles  on  the 
Rhine  and  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  in  France,  England, 
and  Spain.  These  castles  are  built  by  great  feudal  lords, 
and  defended  by  walls  and  moats,  by  position  and  con- 
struction. —  City  Walls,  notably  of  Cologne,  Nuremberg, 
Paris  (1180,  Philip  Augustus),  Florence,  Vienna,  Prague. 
—  Guild  Halls  and  Town  Halls,  notably  in  Antwerp,  Brus- 
sels, Ypres,  Bruges,  Cologne,  Florence. 

The  University  of  Paris,  modelled  after  the  schools  of 
Alexandria,  and  much  favored  in  its  beginning  by  Philip 
Augustus,  king  of  France  ;  it  was  especially  famous  for 
medicine  and  Roman  law;  the  universities  of  Prague, 
Vienna,  Heidelberg,  Erfurt,  and  of  Leipzig,  Basle,  Tubin- 
gen, and  Mainz,  all  modelled  after  the  University  of  Paris ; 
their  statutes  sometimes  begin  with  a  eulogy  on  their 
Parisian  Alma  Mater;  the  universities  of  Cordova  and 
Seville  in  Spain ;  in  Italy  the  University  of  Bologna, 
especially  famous  for  the  study  of  Roman  law,  now  much 
aided  by  the  discovery  of  an  excellent  manuscript  of  Jus- 
tinian's Pandects  at  Amalfi  ;  the  University  of  Salerno  was 
famous  for  medicine,  as  well  as  that  of  Montpellier  in 
France.  In  the  fifteenth  century  nearly  forty  new  univer- 
sities on  the  continent,  and  many  of  the  English  colleges 
were  founded.  In  these  universities  the  courses  included 
grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  arithmetic,  geography,  music, 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD.  367 

astronomy,  theology,  law,  medicine.  The  language  of 
their  books,  their  professors,  and  often  of  the  students, 
was  Latin  ;  the  instruction  was  generally  given  by  monks 
and  other  churchmen.  After  the  fall  of  Constantinople, 
however,  the  study  of  Greek  was  very  generally  intro- 
duced, and  the  philosophy  of  Plato  was  taught  as  well  as 
that  of  Aristotle. 

Numberless  popular  songs  and  romances  belong  to  this 
period ;  in  Germany  alone  were  to  be  found,  in  the  twelfth 
century,  more  than  three  hundred  Minnesingers,  or  wan- 
dering poets  and  bards,  who  lived  by  singing  from  castle 
to  castle  and  from  town  to  town.  They  sang  of  love,  of 
the  beauties  of  nature,  of  contemporary  events  and  per- 
sons ;  all  the  old  myths  of  the  German  heroes  appeared  in 
their  ballads,  and  at  this  time  were  produced  in  their 
present  form  the  Hero-book  and  the  Song  of  the  Niblungs, 
long  poems  full  of  the  mythical  adventures  of  national 
heroes;  all  this  mass  of  poetry  was  sung  or  written  in 
German,  while  the  romances  were  largely  translations 
from  French  stories.  In  the  fifteenth  century  appeared 
an  illustrated  "  Book  of  Nature,"  which  was  one  of  the 
first  to  be  printed ;  "  Reynard  the  Fox,"  a  satirical  poem 
keenly  attacking  the  vices  and  faults  of  all  classes  of 
society,  notably  of  the  clergy,  was  widely  read  and  widely 
translated. 

In  France  we  find  the  same  class  of  wandering  singers 
as  in  Germany,  under  the  name  of  Troubadours  in  the  south 
and  Trouveres  in  the  north.  Romances  of  King  Arthur 
and  Charlemagne  were  very  popular,  and  Alexander  the 
Great  was  a  favorite  hero.  In  general,  the  subjects  of 
mediaeval  romance  were  taken  from  the  crusades,  from 
national  chronicles  and  traditions,  from  classical  or  Bibli- 
cal sources.  The  famous  chronicles  of  the  monks  of  St. 
Denis  were  translated  from  Latin  into  French. 


368  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

In  England,  the  romances  of  the  period  were  translated 
from  the  French,  but  a  collection  of  homilies  appeared  in 
English,  and  the  period  was  rich  in  chronicles. 

Printing  presses  were  set  up  in  Italy,  France,  and  Eng- 
land ;  the  most  famous  of  all  being  that  of  Aldi  in  Venice 
(Aldine  editions),  and  that  of  Caxton  in  England.  Before 
1500,  16,000  editions  of  printed  books  had  appeared.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  the  books  printed  by  Caxton :  Pil- 
grimage of  the  Soul;  Directions  for  keeping  Feasts  all 
the  Year ;  Four  Sermons  ;  The  Golden  Legend  (a  collec- 
tion of  lives  of  the  Saints),  three  editions ;  The  Art  and 
Craft  to  know  well  to  Die,  from  the  French ;  The  Infancy 
of  our  Saviour ;  The  Life  of  St.  Catherine  of  Sens ;  Mirror 
of  the  Blessed  Life  of  Jesus  Christ ;  A  Directory  of  Church 
Worship ;  A  Book  of  Divers  Ghostly  Matters ;  The  Life 
of  St.  Wynefrid;  The  Provincial  Constitutions  of  Bishop 
Lyndwood  of  St.  Asaph,  in  Latin ;  The  Profitable  Book  of 
Man's  Soul,  called  the  Chastising  of  God's  Children  ;  The 
History  of  Troy,  translated  from  the  French ;  The  Book  of 
the  Whole  Life  of  Jason ;  Godfrey  of  Boloyn ;  The  Knight 
of  the  Tower,  from  the  French ;  The  Book  Royal,  or  the 
Book  for  a  King ;  A  Book  of  the  Noble  Histories  of  King 
Arthur  and  of  Certain  of  his  Knights ;  The  History  of  the 
Noble,  Right  Valiant,  and  Right  Worthy  Knight  Paris 
and  of  the  Fair  Vienne ;  The  Book  of  Feats  of  Arms  and 
of  Chivalry,  from  the  French  of  Christina  of  Pisa ;  The 
History  of  King  Blanchardine  and  Queen  Eglantine  his 
Wife.  To  these  may  be  added,  the  History  of  Renard 
the  Fox,  translated  by  Caxton  from  the  German;  The 
Subtle  Histories  and  Fables  of  ^Esop,  from  the  French ; 
The  Works  of  Chaucer,  Gower,  and  Lydgate ;  Translations 
of  Cicero,  Boethius,  Virgil,  from  the  French,  and  Cato ; 
Chronicles  of  England ;  The  Description  of  Britain ;  The 
Polychronicon ;  The  Life  of  Charles  the  Great,  twice 


LATEtt   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  369 

printed  ;  Siege  of  the  Noble  and  Invincible  City  of  Rhodes ; 
Statutes  of  the  First  Year  of  Richard  III.,  and  those  of 
the  first,  second,  and  third  parliaments  of  Henry  VII. ; 
The  Game  of  Chess ;  The  Moral  Proverbs  of  Christina  of 
Pisa;  The  Book  of  Good  Manners;  The  Doctrinal  of  Sapi- 
ence, from  the  French ;  A  Book  for  Travellers. 

The  following  inventions  and  improvements  were  either 
new  or  now  first  came  into  general  use ;  the  application  of 
gunpowder  to  artillery  (Germany) ;  its  composition  seems 
to  have  been  known  in  China,  whence  the  knowledge  of  it 
perhaps  came  into  Europe  by  way  of  India  and  Arabia ; 
the  mariner's  compass,  also  previously  known  in  the 
East;  chimneys,  clocks,  watches;  paper,  similar  to  that 
now  made  ;  the  paving  of  streets  ;  Paris  was  paved  in  the 
twelfth,  London  in  the  fifteenth  century;  engraving  on 
wood  and  metal,  by  means  of  which  books  were  illustrated 
as  well  as  printed ;  fine  grades  of  decorated  pottery, 
embroidered  tapestries,  lace,  linen,  and  woollen  cloths. 

The  inquisition  was  established,  a  commission  appointed  by 
the  pope  for  searching  out  and  trying  heretics ;  confession 
of  heresy  was  often  extracted  by  torture,  and  the  witnesses 
were  concealed  from  the  accused ;  those  condemned  were 
executed  at  the  order  of  the  civil  powers  of  the  various 
European  countries.  The  possession  of  a  translation  of 
the  Bible  unauthorized  by  the  popes  was  considered  a 
mark  of  heresy.  Canon  law  was  thoroughly  codified  by 
the  pope. 

Mendicant  friars  were  sent  as  missionaries  into  Asia  to 
convert  the  Mongols  and  Chinese. 

STUDY  ON  4. 

What  new  activities  does  4  reveal  ?  What  country  leads  in  each  ? 
What  country,  on  the  whole,  seems  to  you  to  be  first  in  civilization, 
judging  from  4  alone?  What  kind  of  civilization?  To  what  facts 


370  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

noticed  in  1,  2,  and  3  does  the  building  of  cathedrals  correspond?  The 
founding  of  universities?  The  building  of  the  castles  on  the  Rhine? 
Of  guild-halls  and  town-halls  ?  What  does  the  fact  of  such  a  body  of 
literature  in  the  national  tongues  of  Europe  show  about  the  taste  of 
the  people  ?  What  do  the  subjects  show  ?  What  influences  do  you  see 
at  work  in  this  literature  ?  Why  is  a  list  of  the  first  printed  books  a 
very  valuable  index  to  the  tastes  and  knowledge  of  the  people,  and  the 
influences  and  interests  felt  by  them?  What  does  Caxton's  list  tell  us 
of  England  in  each  of  these  respects  ?  What  advantages  have  printed 
books  over  manuscripts?  Of  what  did  they  take  the  place  for  the 
common  people  ?  What  new  influences  would  printing  bring  to  bear  on 
them  which  they  had  not  before  felt?  What  influence  would  it  have 
upon  the  accuracy  and  clearness  of  their  thought  ? 

What  foundations  and  enterprises  of  this  time  display  a  genuine 
spirit  of  Christianity  ?  Why  should  the  pope  be  unusually  troubled 
by  heresies  during  these  centuries?  What  new  power  or  comfort 
given  to  people  by  each  of  the  inventions  named?  What  depart- 
ment of  life  do  they  more  especially  serve?  What  traces  do  you  think 
you  see  of  the  influences  of  the  crusades  ? 


LATER  MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD. 


371 


a.    CATHEDRAL  OP  AMIENS.   FRANCE. 

Thirteenth  century;  built  of  stone,  with  stained-glass  windows;   the  highest  tower, 
210  feet  in  height. 


S72 


STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTOKY. 


INTERIOR  OP  THE   CATHEDRAL   OP  COLOGNE. 
Fourteenth  century. 


LATER    MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD. 


878 


C.    PORTAL  OF  NOTRE   DAME   OF  PARIS. 

ThiSk-enth  century;    dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  whose  statue  is  ou  the  central 
column,  and  whose  burial  is  represented  above;  stone-carving. 


374  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 


d.    VIEW  IN  THE   COURT   OF   THE   CARTHUSIAN   MONASTERY  AT  PA  VIA. 


C.     BIRD'S-EYE   VIEW  OF  THE   CASTLE   OF  PIERREFOND. 

A  short  distance  north  of  Paris;  built  in  fourteenth  century  by  the  king's  brother; 
stood  four  royal  sieges;  stands  on  a  rocky  height,  covering  nearly  one  acre  and  a  half  of 
ground;  towers  112  feet  high,  with  walls  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  thick;  approach  to  the. 
castle  over  two  permanent  bridges  and  :i  drawbridge;  within  the  castle  is  a  reception- 
room,  a  chapel,  a  library,  living  rooms  for  its  master  and  for  soldiers;  dungeons;  the 
whple  mass  built  around  the  court  a, 


^^^ 


/.     CASTLE   ST.    TJLRIO. 

Fifteenth  century ;  one  of  the  three  castles  of  the  Counts  of  Rappoltstein,  who  bore  the  heredi- 
tary title  of  "  kings  "  of  all  the  musicians  and  minstrels  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  who  paid  them  a  yearly 
tax  in  return  for  their  protection,  and  who  once  a  year  gathered  at  the  castle  for  a  joyous  festival, 
called  the  "  Piper's  day." 


LATEIl   MEDIAEVAL,  PERIOD. 


377 


g.     THE   CLOTH   HALL   OP  YPRES 

Thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries;  Ypres  was  formerly  the  capital  of  West  Flanders, 
and  at  the  time  when  this  hall  was  built  was  one  of  the  most  famous  seats  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  linen  and  of  lace. 


378  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

STUDY  ON   PICTURES. 

What  parts  of  a  serve  as  a  basis  for  decoration?  What  new  forms 
of  architecture  do  you  see  in  a,  b,  c,  g!  What  new  material  is  used 
for  decoration  ?  What  subjects  ?  What  forms  are  employed  (see  c)  ? 
Find  something  Greek,  something  Moorish,  something  Roman,  in  the 
pictures  from  a  to  d  inclusive.  In  which  of  these  pictures  is  everything 
purely  original  to  this  period  ?  What  beauties  do  you  find  in  a,  b,  and 
rf?  Why  call  c  a  portal  instead  of  a  door?  Name  two  facts  you  have 
before  discovered  which  are  illustrated  by  a,  b,  and  d.  Compare  e  and 
/with  picture  of  Fountains  Hall  (p.  413)  ;  what  notable  differences  in 
construction  and  location?  Explain  the  points  you  have  mentioned 
in  regard  to  the  castles,  by  reference  to  the  events  and  organizations  of 
the  time.  Supposing  we  knew  nothing  about  this  period  except  what 
we  knew  of  these  two  castles,  how  much  could  they  tell  us  ?  What 
could  (j  tell  us,  if  it  were  the  only  source  of  information  in  regard  to 
this  time  that  we  possessed  ? 

5.  Extracts  and  Notes  Illustrative  of  Law,  Custom,  and 
Organization  of  Period. 

a.   From  the  Great  Charter  (Magna  Charta).1 

14.  No   scutage   or  aid   shall   be  imposed  in  our  kingdom, 
unless  by  the  common  council  [parliament]  of  our  kingdom, 
except  to  redeem  our  person,  and  to   make   our  eldest  son  a 
knight,  and  once  to  marry  our  eldest  daughter ;  and  for  this 
there  shall  only  be  paid  a  reasonable  aid. 

15.  In  like  manner,  it  shall  be  concerning  the  aids  of  the 
city  of   London,  and  the  city  of   London   shall   have   all   her 
ancient  liberties  and  free  customs,  as  well  by  land  as  by  water. 

16.'  Furthermore,  we  will  and  grant  that  all  other  cities,  and 
boroughs,  and  towns,  and  ports  shall  have  all  their  liberties 
and  free  customs,  and  shall  have  the  common  council  of  the 
kingdom  concerning  the  assessments  of  their  aids,  except  in  the 

three  cases  aforesaid. 

******* 
20.    We  will  not,  for  the  future,  grant  to  any  one  that  he 

1  All  laws  and  charters  were  in  Latin  till  towards  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century. 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  379 

may  take  the  aid  of  his  own  free  tenants,  unless  to  redeem  his 
body,  and  to  make  his  eldest  son  a  knight,  and  once  to  marry 
his  eldest  daughter,  and  for  this  there  shall  only  be  paid  a  rea- 
sonable aid. 

******* 
22.    Common  pleas  shall  not  follow  our  court,  but  be  holden 
in  some  certain  place.  .  .  . 

******* 
33.    No  constable  or  bailiff  of  ours  shall  take  corn  or  other 
chattels  of  an}'  man,  unless  he  presently  give  him  money  for  it. 

******* 

36.  No  sheriffs  or  bailiffs  of  ours,  or  any  others,  shall  take 
horses  or  carts  of  any  man  for  carriage. 

37.  Neither  we,  nor  our  officers,  or  others,  shall   take  any 
man's  timber,  for  our  castles  or  other  uses,  unless  by  the  con- 
sent of  the  owner  of  the  timber. 

******* 
41.    There  shall  be  one  measure  of  wine,  and  one   of   ale, 
through  our  whole  realm,  and  one  measure  of  corn,  that  is  to 
say,  the  London  quarter ;  and  one  breadth  of  dyed  cloth ;  .  .  . 
and  the  weight  shall  be  as  the  measures. 

******* 

45.  No  bailiff,  for  the  future,  shall  put  any  man  to  his  law 
upon  his  single  accusation,  without  credible  witnesses  produced 
to  prove  it. 

46.  No  freeman  shall  be  taken,  or  imprisoned,  or  disseised,  or 
outlawed,  or  banished,  or  any  ways  destroyed  ;  nor  will  we  pass 
upon  him,  or  commit  him  to  prison,  unless  by  the  legal  judgment 
of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land.     [Habeas  corpus."] 

47.  We  will  sell  or  deny,  or  defer,  right  or  justice  to  no  man. 

48.  All  merchants  shall  have  secure  conduct  to  go  out  of 
England  and  to  come  into  England,  and  to  stay  and  abide  there, 
and  to  pass  as  well  by  land  as  by  water,  to  buy  and  sell,  by  the 
ancient  and  allowed  customs,  without  any  evil  toils,  except  in 
time  of  war.  . 


380  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

60.  If  any  one  hath  been  dispossessed  or  deprived  by  us, 
without  the  legal  judgment  of  his  peers,  of  his  lands,  castles, 
liberties,  or  rights,  we  will  forthwith  restore  them  to  him ;  and 
if  any  dispute  arises  upon  this  head,  let  the  matter  be  decided 
by  the  five-and-twenty  barons  hereafter  mentioned,  for  the 
preservation  of  the  peace. 

******* 
69.    All  the  aforesaid  customs,  privileges,  and  liberties  which 
we  have  granted  to  be  holden  in  our  kingdom,  as  much  as  it 
belongs  to  us  towards  our  people,  —  all  our  subjects,  as  well  clergy 
as  laity,  shall  observe  .  .  .  towards  their  dependents. 

******* 

78.  Wherefore,  we  will  and  firmly  enjoin  that  the  Church  of 
England  be  free,  and  that  all  men  in  our  kingdom  have  and 
hold  all  the  aforesaid  liberties,  rights,  and  concession,  truly 
and  peaceably,  freely  and  quietly,  fully  and  wholly,  to  them- 
selves and  their  heirs,  of  us  and  our  heirs,  in  all  things  and 
places,  forever,  as  is  aforesaid. 

79.  It  is  also  sworn,  as  well  on  our  part  as  on  the  part  of 
the  barons,  that  all  things  aforesaid  shall  faithfully  and  sincerely 
be  observed. 

Given  under  our  hand,  in  the  presence  of  the  witnesses 
above-named  and  many  others,  in  the  meadow  called 
Runny mede,  between  Windsor  and  Stanes,  on  the  fif- 
teenth day  of  June,  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  our  reign. 

b.   From  the  Establishments  of  St.  Lewis. 

"  We  prohibit  all  private  battles  throughout  our  domains  ;  .  .  . 
whatever  peaceful  modes  of  settling  disputes  have  been  in  force 
hitherto,  we  fully  continue  ;  but  battles l  we  forbid ;  instead  of 
them,  we  enjoin  proof  by  witnesses." 

St.  Lewis  decreed  that  the  clergy  should  not  bear  arms  ;  that 
their  gold-studded  belts  and  gilded  spurs  should  disappear ;  that 

1  It  was  the  ordinary  custom  in  the  middle  ages  to  settle  disputes  by 
"  Wager  of  Battle,"  it  being  believed  that  God  would  give  victory  to  truth 
and  right. 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  381 

the  monasteries  should  follow  the  strictest  discipline,  and  that 
the  election  of  bishops  should  no  longer  be  tampered  with  by 
the  king  or  his  nobles. 

He  also  gave  every  man  of  the  realm  a  right  of  appeal  to  the 
king.  By  him,  the  goldsmiths  of  Paris  were  freed  from  feudal 
dues.  His  successor  (Philip  III.)  allowed  those  not  nobles  to 
gain  the  lands  of  nobles;  titled  the  lawyers  "knights  of  the 
law,"  and  made  them  chief  advisors  of  the  Crown. 

c.  Protest  of  the  Nobles  and  Commons  in  1314. 

"  We,  nobles  and  commons  of  Champagne,  for  ourselves,  .  .  . 
and  for  all  our  allies  and  associates  within  the  limits  of  the 
kingdom  of  France,  to  all  who  shall  see  and  hear  these  presents, 
health.  It  is  known  unto  you  all,  that  .  .  .  our  dearly  beloved 
and  redoubtable  lord  Philip,  by  the  grace  of  God  king  of 
France,  has  made  and  imposed  various  taxes,  .  .  .  whereby  and 
by  several  other  things  which  have  been  done,  the  nobles  and 
commons  have  been  sorely  aggrieved  and  impoverished,  and 
great  evils  have  ensued,  and  are  still  taking  place.  .  .  .  We 
have  at  various  times  devoutly  requested  and  humbly  suppli- 
cated the  said  lord  king  to  discontinue  and  utterly  put  an  end 
to  these  grievances,  but  he  has  not  attended  to  our  entreaties. 
.  .  .  And  just  lately,  in  this  present  year,  1314,  the  said  king 
has  made  undue  demands  upon  the  nobles  and  commons  of  the 
kingdom,  and  unjust  subsidies  which  he  has  attempted  by  force 
to  levy  ;  these  things  we  cannot  conscientiously  submit  to,  for 
thereby  we  shall  lose  our  honors,  franchises,  and  liberties,  both 
we  and  those  who  shall  come  after  us." 

d.  From  Law  of  Lewis  X.,  the  Turbulent  [Hutin],  1315. 

"As,  according  to  the  law  of  nature,  each  must  be  born  free, 
and  by  some  usages  or  customs,  .  .  .  many  of  our  common 
people  have  fallen  into  servitude  and  divers  conditions  which 
very  much  displease  us ;  we,  .  .  .  wishing  that  .  .  .  the  condi- 
tion of  the  people  should  improve  on  the  advent  of  our  new 
government,  upon  deliberation  with  our  great  council,  have 


382  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

ordered  an  order,  that,  generally  throughout  the  kingdom,  so 
far  as  may  belong  to  us  and  our  successors,  such  servitudes  be 
brought  back  to  freedom,  .  .  .  and  especially  that  our  common 
people  ...  be  ...  no  longer  molested  nor  grieved  in  these 
respects  as  they  have  hitherto  been,  whereat  we  are  displeased, 
and  to  give  an  example  to  other  seigniors  who  have  men  in  like 
tenure  to  give  them  freedom." 

e.   Law  of  1439. 

The  king  was  given  power  to  appoint  the  officers  of  the  army, 
to  fix  the  number  of  foot-soldiers  ;  to  levy  taxes  without  the 
consent  of  the  estates  with  which  to  pay  the  levies.  The  great 
nobles  opposed  this  by  war,  but  were  overcome. 

/.    From  the  Oath  of  a  Knight. 

The  knight  promised  "to  fear,  revere,  and  serve  God  relig- 
iously, to  fight  for  the  faith  with  all  his  strength,  and  to  die  a 
thousand  deaths  rather  than  renounce  Christianity  ;  to  serve  his 
sovereign  prince  faithfully,  and  to  fight  for  him  and  his  country 
most  valiantly  ;  to  maintain  the  just  right  of  the  weak,  such  as 
of  widows,  orphans,  and  maidens,  in  a  good  quarrel ;  .  .  .  never 
to  offend  any  one  maliciously,  nor  usurp  the  possession  of 
another,  but  rather  fight  against  those  who  did  so.  They  swore 
that  avarice,  recompense,  gain,  or  profit,  should  never  oblige 
them  to  do  any  action,  but  only  glory  and  virtue ;  .  .  .  that  they 
would  never  fight  more  than  one  against  one,  and  that  they 
would  avoid  all  fraud  and  deceit ;  .  .  .  that  having  made  a  vow 
or  promise  to  go  upon  some  quest  or  strange  adventure,  they 
would  never  lay  aside  their  arms  except  to  repose  at  night ;  that 
in  the  pursuit  of  any  quest  or  adventure,  they  would  never  avoid 
bad  and  perilous  passages,  nor  turn  off  from  the  straight  road 
for  fear  of  encountering  powerful  knights,  monsters,  savage 
beasts,  or  any  other  impediment  which  the  body  and  courage  of 
a  single  man  might  overcome ;  .  .  .  that  they  would  hold  them- 
selves bound  to  conduct  a  lady  or  maiden,  they  would  serve  her, 
protect  her,  and  save  her  from  all  danger,  and  all  insult,  or  die 
in  the  attempt ;  .  .  .  that  .  .  .  they  would  be  faithful  observers 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  383 

of  their  word  and  pledged  faith,  and  that  being  taken  prisoners* 
in  fair  war,  they  would  pay  exactly  the  promised  ransom,  ot 
return  to  prison  at  the  day  and  time  agreed  upon." 

h.    From  the  English  Laws. 

Every  man  was  bound  to  hold  himself  in  readiness,  duly 
armed,  for  the  king's  service  in  case  of  invasion  or  revolt.  .  .  . 
All  brushwood  was  ordered  to  be  destroyed  within  a  space  of 
two  hundred  feet  on  either  side  of  the  public  highway  as  a 
security  for  travellers  against  sudden  attacks  from  robbers. 
(Edward  I.) 

An  ordinance  was  passed  in  Edward  the  Second's  time,  that 
no  person,  whether  an  inhabitant  of  London  or  otherwise,  should 
be  admitted  to  the  freedom  of  the  city  unless  he  were  a  member 
of  one  of  the  trades  or  mysteries. — Under  Edward  III.,  the 
right  of  election  of  all  city  dignitaries  and  officers,  including 
members  of  parliament,  was  transferred  from  the  ward-repre- 
sentatives to  the  trading  companies. 

"  Know  all  men,  that  we  have  been  assured  that  John  of 
Rous  and  Master  William  of  Dalby  know  how  to  make  silver  by 
the  art  of  alchemy  ;  that  they  have  made  it  in  former  times, 
and  still  continue  to  make  it;  and,  considering  that  these  men, 
by  their  art,  and  by  making  the  precious  metal,  may  be  profita- 
ble to  us  and  to  our  kingdom,  we  have  commanded  our  well- 
beloved  Thomas  Gary  to  apprehend  the  aforesaid  John  and 
William,  wherever  they  can  be  found,  within  liberties  or  with- 
out, and  bring  them  to  us,  together  with  all  the  instruments  of 
their  art,  under  safe  and  sure  custody." 

Edward  also  imported  and  protected  Flemish  weavers  to  spin 
the -English  wool. 

In  1456.  Parliament  confirmed  the  permission  of  the  king  to 
three  famous  men  who  were  experimenting  to  find  a  "  certain 
most  precious  medicine,  called  by  some  the  mother  and  queen 
of  medicines  ;  ...  by  others,  the  philosophers'  stone  ;  by  others, 
(he  elixir  of  life  ;  which  cures  all  curable  diseases  with  ease, 
prolongs  all  human  life  in  perfect  health  and  vigor  of  faculty  to 


384  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

its  utmost  term,  is  a  most  sovereign  antidote  against  all  poisons, 
and  is  capable  ...  of  preserving  to  us  and  our  kingdom  other 
great  advantages,  such  as  the  transmutation  of  other  metals 
into  fine  gold  and  silver." 

STUDY  ON   5. 

Make  a  list  of  the  wrongs  and  oppressions  that  had  evidently 
existed  before  the  time  of  a.  Judging  from  internal  evidence,  what 
classes  of  people  present  it,  and  in  whose  interests  ?  What  modern 
principle  in  regard  to  taxation  does  it  state  ?  In  regard  to  the  trial 
of  a  man  charged  with  crime  ?  What  extract  is  similar  to  a  ? 

What  reforms  does  St.  Lewis  endeavor  to  make?  Against  what 
part  of  the  state  are  b  and  d  directed?  c?  What  powers  does  e  show 
in  the  hands  of  the  king?  What  adjective  will  you  apply  to  his 
power  in  1439  ?  Which  is  most  civilized  in  political  directions 
during  this  period,  England  or  France  ?  Prove  it. 

What  was  the  occupation  of  the  knight?  Make  a  list  of  his  duties. 
What  feeling  would  he  have  toward  men  who  worked  for  money? 
Why  ?  In  what  ways  was  the  knight  like  the  ideal  gentleman  of  to- 
day? What  feelings  would  his  vows  encourage?  What  virtues? 

What  does  the  first  law  in  h  prove  in  regard  to  the  good  govern- 
ment of  England  ?  WThat  does  each  of  the  other  English  laws  given 
indicate? 

6.  Illustrative  Extracts  from  Literature  of  the  Period. 

a.   From  Roger  Bacon. 

The  pope  asked  Bacon  for  a  copy  of  his  writings,  and  Bacon 
writes  :  "  The  head  of  the  Church  has  sought  out  me,  the  un- 
worthy sole  of  its  foot ;  the  vicar  of  Christ  and  ruler  of  the 
world  has  condescended  to  ask  a  favor  of  me,  who  am  scarcely 
to  be  numbered  among  the  units  of  the  world." 

******* 

"Of  natural  philosophy  there  are  many  .  .  .  special  divisions 
...  1.  optics;  2.  astronomy;  3.  gravity;  4.  alchemy;  5.  agri- 
culture; 6.  medicine;  7.  experimental  science." 

Speaking  of  Rome,  he  says,  "Morals  there  are  most  per- 
verted ;  pride  reigns,  avarice  is  rampant,  envy  corrodes  all." 


LATER    MEDLEY AL   PERIOD.  385 

"  A  knowledge  of  reasoning  is  given  to  man  by  nature  as  the 
means  for  investigating  all  other  sciences." 

Writing  of  alchemy,  he  says  :  — 

' '  There  is  another  science  which  treats  of  ...  the  elements 
and  liquids  simple  and  compound,  common  stones,  gems  and 
marbles,  gold  and  other  metals  ...  of  which  we  find  nothing 
in  the  books  of  Aristotle ;  nor  are  .  .  .  any  of  the  Latins 
acquainted  with  these  things.  .  .  .  Neither  the  names  nor  the 
significations  of  medicines  can  be  learned,  except  from  this 
science,  that  is,  from  speculative  alchemy.  •  •  •  There  is  also 
a  ...  practical  alchemy  which  .  .  .  not  only  provides  money  for 
a  state,  but  teaches  the  means  of  prolonging  life,  so  far  as  nature 
will  allow.  .  .  .  But  this  .  .  .  alchemy  is  scarcely  understood 
by  any ;  for  although  many  throughout  the  world  labor  to  make 
colors  truly  and  usefully,  scarcely  any  know  how  to  make 
metals,  and  still  fewer  those  things  which  avail  for  the  prolonga- 
tion of  life.  There  are  very  few  who  can  distil  properly." 

6.    From  German  Minnesingers. 

"  When  Constantino  gave  to  the  Roman  chair  a  lance  .  .  . 
and  crown,  the  angels  wept,  and  rightly,  too,  for  now  we  see  the 
pope  abuse  this  power,  to  ruin  the  emperor  and  set  his  princes 
all  against  him.  .  .  .  How  can  the  pope  at  Rome  look  Christ- 
like  when  he  sees  the  good-hearted  Germans  fast  ...  to  fill  his 
coffers  with  their  silver.  I  fear  me,  little  of  it  reaches  the 
Holy  Laud,  for  the  priests  are  loath  to  give  it  up." 

"I  am  noble,  says  many  a  man  in  whom  we  can  see  neither 
virtue,  nor  honor,  nor  modesty,  nor  any  sort  of  worth  to  rever- 
ence. .  .  .  Nobles  are  of  two  kinds  :  he  who  is  noble  by  birth, 
who  yet  may  be  a  fool ;  and  he  who  is  noble  by  virtue,  and  not 
by  an  honored  name. 

c.    From  Widlf. 

In  Wiclifs  Apology  for  the  Lollards,  he  maintains  :  (1)  That 
the  pope  is  not  the  vicar  6f  Christ,  nor  of  Peter.  (2)  That 
the  pope  selleth  indulgences.  ...  (6)  That  every  priest  is 


386  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

bound  to  preach.  ...  (10)  Fastings  are  not  necessary,  while 
a  man  abstaineth  himself  from  other  sin.  .  .  .  (16)  That 
there  is  no  pope,  nor  Christ's  vicar,  but  an  holy  man.  (22)  That 
no  man  is  Christ's  disciple  unless  he  keep  Christ's  word.  .  .  . 

(24)  That  images   of   the    saints   are   not  to   be  worshipped. 

(25)  That  the  written  gospel  is  not  to  be  worshipped.     (26) 
That  charms  are  not  lawful.     These  points  he  maintains  by 
reference  to  the  Canon  law,  the  Scriptures,  the  Church  fathers, 
and  the  early  Church  history.     By  the  first  point  Wiclif  explained 
that  he  meant  that  the  pope  is  no  vicar  "  when  he  filleth  not  in 
deed,  nor  in  word,  the  office  of  Peter  .  .  .  but  doeth  contrarily ; . 
.  .  .  the  Apostle  Paul  saith  thus  :  '  If  any  man  has  not  the  spirit 
of  Christ,  he  is  not  of  him  .  .  .  the  name  maketh  not  the  bishop, 
but  the  life.  .  .  .'" 

In  preaching  to  the  English  peasants,  Wiclif  says,  "  Good 
people,  affairs  can  only  go  well  in  England  when  there  shall 
be  neither  serfs  nor  nobles,  and  when  all  shall  be  equal." 

d.  From  a  Song  of  the  Time  of  Edward  I. 

"  .  .  .  It  is  not  sound  law  which  gives  my  wool  to  the  king. 
.  .  .  Since  the  king  is  determined  to  take  so  much,  he  may  find 
enough  among  the  rich ;  and  he  would  get  more  and  do  better 
...  to  have  taken  a  part  from  the  great,  and  to  have  spared 
the  little  ;  ...  it  is  no  trouble  to  the  great  thus  to  grant  to  the 
king  a  tax ;  the  simple  must  pay  it  all,  which  is  contrary  to 
God's  will  ...  for  those  who  make  the  grant  give  nothing  to 
the  king.  It  is  the  needy  only  who  give ;  .  .  .  with  other 
people's  goods  they  hold  great  court.  ...  To  tell  unvarnished 
truth,  it  is  mere  robbery.  ...  If  the  king  would  take  my 
advice,  I  would  praise  him  then  to  take  the  vessels  of  silver  and 
make  money  of  them." 

e.  From  Dante. 

"To  Rome,  which  taught  the  ancient  world  good  deeds, 
Two  suns  were  wont  to  point  ttie  twofold  way, 
That  of  the  world  and  that  to  God  which  leads. 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  .  387 

The  one  hath  quenched  the  other,  —  and  scarce  it  need  be  told 

How  ill  the  twain  such  combination  brook.   .   .   . 

Know  then,  Rome's  church,  oppressed  by  too  much  weight, 

Confounding  the  two  governments,  hath  brought 

Herself  into  the  mire  with  all  her  freight." 

****** 

' '  0  glorious  stars  ! 
O  light  abounding  in  exceeding  life ! 
To  you  whate'er  of  genius  lifteth  me 
Above  the  common  herd,  I  grateful  owe  ;  .  .  . 
.  .  .  To  you  my  soul 
Devoutly  sighs  for  courage  even  now 
To  meet  the  hard  emprize  that  draws  me  on." 

****** 
"  Ah,  slavish  Italy  !  thou  inn  of  grief  ! 
Vessel  without  a  pilot  in  loud  storm ! 

.  .  .  Thy  living  ones 
In  thee  abide  not  without  war ;  and  one 
Malicious  gnaws  another  ;  ay,  of  those 
Whom  the  same  wall  and  the  same  moat  contains. 
Seek,  wretched  one  !  around  thy  sea-coasts  wide  ; 
Then  homeward  to  thy  bosom  turn  ;  and  mark, 
If  any  part  of  thee  sweet  peace  enjoy. 

****** 
Oh  German  Albert !  who  abandon'st  her  \_Italy~\ 
That  is  grown  savage  and  unmanageable, 
When  thou  shouldst  clasp  her  flanks  with  forked  heels. 
Just  judgment  from  the  stars  fall  on  thy  blood ; 

****** 
For  that  thy  sire  and  thou  have  suffer'd  thus, 
Through  greediness  of  yonder  realms,  detain'd,  [Germany] 
The  garden  of  the  empire  to  run  waste. 

.  .  .  Come,  cruel  one ! 

Come  and  behold  thy  Rome,  who  calls  on  thee, 
Desolate  widow,  day  and  night  with  moans, 
'  My  Caesar,  why  dost  thou  desert  my  side?'" 


388  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

In  the  visit  to  Inferno  (Hell) ,  Virgil  thus  speaks  to  Dante  :  — 

"  There  above  [on  earth] 
How  many  now  hold  themselves  mighty  kings 
Who  here  like  swine  shall  wallow  in  the  mire." 

And  as  they  proceed  on  their  way  from  circle  to  circle  of 
misery,  Dante  finds  immersed  within  the  "  crimson  seething 
flood" 

"...  the  souls  of  tyrants,  who  were  given 
To  blood  and  rapine.   .  .   .     Here  Alexander  dwells 
And  Dionysius 1  fell,  who  many  a  }-ear 
Of  woe  wrought  for  fair  Sicily. 

****** 
Christ  said  not  to  his  first  conventicle, 
'  Go  forth  and  preach  impostures  to  the  world,' 
But  gave  them  truth  to  build  on ;  and  the  sound 
Was  mighty  on  their  lips  ;  nor  needed  they, 
Beside  the  Gospel,  other  spear  or  shield 
To  aid  them  in  their  warfare  for  the  faith. 
The  preacher  now  provides  himself  with  store 
Of  jests  and  gibes  ;  and,  so  there  be  no  lack 
Of  laughter,  while  he  vents  them,  his  big  cowl 
Distends,  and  he  has  won  the  meed  he  sought." 

f.    From  Mandeville's  Travels.    (Time  of  King  Edward  III.) 

"  In  that  countree  of  Libye  is  the  See  more  highe  than  the 
Land ;  and  ...  in  that  See  of  Libye  is  no  Fissche,  for  thei 
mowe  [may]  not  lyve  in  dare,  for  the  gret  hete  of  the  Sonne  ; 
for  the  watre  is  evermore  boyllynge,  for  the  gret  hete.  ..." 

"  And  in  that  Yle  there  is  a  gret  marvayle,  more  to  speke  of 
than  in  any  other  partie  of  the  world.  For  all  mannere  of 
Fisches,  .  .  .  comen  ones  in  the  Zeer  [year]  .  .  .  and  casten  hem 
self  to  the  seebank  of  that  Yle,  so  gret  plentee  and  multitude 
that  no  man  may  unnethe  [nothing]  see  but  Fissche  ;  and  there 

1  Tyrant  of  Syracuse. 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  389 

thei  abyden  3  da3*es ;  and  every  man  of  this  countree  taketh 
of  hem  as  many  as  him  lykethe.  ..." 

"  And  alle  the  men  and  women  of  that  Yle  [Nacumera]  have 
houndes  hedes.  ...  In  that  contree  .  .  .  there  been  wylde  Gees, 
that  have  2  Hedes." 

"And  in  another  Yle,  toward  the  Southe  dwellen  folk  .  .  . 
that  have  no  Hedes ;  and  here  Eeyen  ben  in  here  scholdres." 

"At  myn  Horn  Comynge  I  cam  to  Rome,  and  schewed  .  .  . 
to  oure  holy  Fadir  the  Pope  .  .  .  this  tretys  .  .  .  and  besoughte 
his  holy  Fadirhode,  that  my  Boke  myghten  be  examyned  and 
corrected  be  avys  of  his  wyse  and  discreet  conseille.  ...  By 
the  whiche,  my  Boke  was  pruved  for  trewe." 

g.   From  the  Prologue  to  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales.1 

"  A  knight  there  was, "and  that  a  worthy  man, 

That  from  the  tim6  that  he  first  began 

To  ride"  out,  he  love'd  chivalry, 

Truth  and  honor,  freedom  and  courtesy.  .  .  . 

And  though  that  he  was  worthy,  he  was  wise 

And  of  his  port  as  meek  as  is  a  maid. 

He  never  yet  no  mean,  rude  thing  had  said 

In  all  his  life,  unto  no  manner  wight. 

He  was  a  very  perfect,  gentle  knight 

******* 
"  With  him  there  was  his  son,  a  young  squire,  .  .  . 

Embroidered  was  he,  as  it  were  a  mede 

All  full  of  freshe"  flowers,  white  and  red. 

Singing  he  was  or  fluting  all  the  day  .  .  . 

Well  could  he  sit  on  horse,  and  fairly  ride, 

And  songs  he  could  compose,  and  stories  tell, 

Joust  and  eek  dance,  and  well  portray2  and  write.  .  .  . 

Courteous  he  was,  lowly  and  serviceable, 

And  carved  before  his  father  at  the  table. 

1  In  the  following  extracts,  all  the  accented  syllables  should  be  pro- 
nounced. 
2  Paint. 


390  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


There  was  also  a  nun,  a  prioress, 

That  of  her  smiling  was  full  simple  and  003- ; 

.  Her  greatest  oath  was  but  by  Saint  Loy  ;     . 
And  she  was  clepe"d  madame  Eglantine. 
Full  well  she  sang  the  servic£  divine.  .  .  . 
And  French  she  spoke  full  fair  and  cleverly.  .  .  . 
At  meat  well-taught  was  she  withal ; 
She  let  no  morsel  from  her  lippe"s  fall, 
Nor  wet  her  fingers  in  her  saucer  deep.  .  .  . 
In  courtesy  was  set  full  much  her  heart. 
******* 
A  monk  there  was,  that  lovdd  hunting  well ;  .  .  . 
Full  many  a  dainty  horse  had  he  in  stable :  .  .  . 
Greyhounds  he  had  as  swift  as  fowl  in  flight ; 
Of  riding  and  of  hunting  for  the  hare 
Was  all  his  love,  for  no  cost  would  he  spare. 
I  saw  his  sleeves  adorne'd  at  the  wrist 
With  costly  fur,  the  finest  of  the  land. 
And  for  to  fasten  his  hood  under  his  chin 
He  had  a  curious  pin  of  well-wrought  gold : 
A  love-knot  in  the  greater  end  there  was.  .  .  . 
He  was  a  lord  full  fat,  and  in  good  point ;  .  .  . 
A  fat  swan  loved  he  best  of  any  roast. 
******* 

4  A  friar  there  was,  a  wanton  and  a  merry,  .  .  . 
He  was  an  easy  man  in  giving  penance, 
Where'er  he  knew  he'd  get  a  goodly  pittance  ;  .  .  . 
He  knew  the  taverns  well  in  every  town, 
And  every  worthy  host,  and  hostess  too, 
Better  than  any  leprous  beggar  folk  .  .  . 
It  looks  not  well,  and  profits  not 
To  deal  at  all  with  folk  of  that  low  sort,  .  .  . 
And  over  all,  wherever  profit  could  arise, 
Courteous  he  was,  and  lowly  of  service. 
******* 


LATEIi   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  391 

' '  A  Hatter  and  a  Carpenter, 

A  Weaver,  Dyer,  and  Upholsterer 

And  they  were  clothed  all  in  livery 

Of  an  important,  great  fraternity.  .  .  . 

Their  knives  were  plated  not  with  brass, 

But  all  with  silver  wrought  full  clean  and  well, 

Their  girdles  and  their  pouches  quite  the  same.  .  .  . 

And  each  one  by  the  wisdom  that  he  had, 

"Was  fitted  for  to  be  an  alderman  ; 

For  goods  had  they  enough  and  rent. 

******* 
"  A  good  man  was  there  of  religion, 

And  was  a  poor  parson  of  a  town  ; 

But  rich  he  was  in  holy  thought  and  work.  .  .  . 

Wide  was  his  parish,  with  houses  far  asunder, 

But  yet  he  ceased  not  for  rain  nor  thunder, 

In  sickness  and  in  mischief  for  to  visit, 

The  farthest  in  his  parish,  great  and  small, 

Upon  his  feet,  and  in  his  hand  a  staff. 

This  noble  ensample  to 'his  sheep  he  gave, 

That  first  he  wrought,  and  afterward  he  taught.  .  .  . 

And  Christ,  his  lore,  and  his  apostles  twelve, 

He  taught,  but  first  he  followed  it  himself." 

It.    From  Froissart. 

(The  Prince  of  Wales  entertains  his  prisoner,  the  king  of 
France,  after  the  battle  of  Poitiers  in  1356.) 

"When  evening  was  come,  the  Prince  of  Wales  gave  a 
supper  in  his  pavilion  to  the  king  of  France,  and  to  the  greater 
part  of  the  princes  and  barons  who  were  prisoners.  The  prince 
seated  the  king  of  France  and  his  son,  the  Lord  Philip,  at  an 
elevated  and  well-covered  table  ;  with  them  were  Sir  .Tames  de 
Bourbon,  the  Lord  John  d'Artois,  the  earls  of  Lancarville,  of 
Estampes,  etc.  The  other  knights  and  squires  were  placed  at 
different  tables.  The  prince  himself  served  the  king's  table  as 
well  as  the  others,  with  every  mark  of  humility,  and  would  not 


892  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

sit  down  at  it,  in  spite  of  all  his  entreaties  for  him  to  do  so, 
saving,  that  '  he  was  not  worthy  of  such  an  honour,  nor  did  it 
appertain  to  him  to  seat  himself  at  the  table  of  so  great  a  king, 
or  of  so  valiant  a  man  as  he  had  shown  himself  by  his  actions 
that  day.'  He  added  also  with  a  noble  air,  '  Dear  sir,  do  not 
make  a  poor  meal  because  the  almighty  God  has  not  gratified 
vour  wishes  in  the  event  of  this  day ;  for,  be  assured  that  my 
lord  and  father  will  show  you  every  honor  and  friendship  in  his 
power.  ...  In  my  opinion,  you  have  cause  to  be  glad  that  the 
success  of  this  battle  did  not  turn  as  you  desired ;  for  you  have 
this  day  acquired  such  high  renown  for  prowess,  that  you  have 
surpassed  all  the  best  knights  on  your  side  ;  I  do  not,  dear  sir, 
say  this  to  flatter  you,  for  all  those  of  our  side  who  have  seen 
and  observed  the  actions  of  each  party  have  unanimously  al- 
lowed this  to  be  your  due,  and  decree  you  the  prize  and  garland 
for  it.'  At  the  end  of  this  speech,  there  were  murmurs  of 
praise  heard  from  every  one ;  and  the  French  said  the  prince 
had  spoken  trulv  and  nobly,  and  that  he  would  be  one  of  the 
most  gallant  princes  of  Christendom,  if  God  should  grant  him 
life  to  pursue  his  career  of  glory.  "When  they  had  supped  and 
sufficiently  regaled  themselves,  each  departed  to  his  own  lodg- 
ing with  the  knights  and  squires  they  had  captured.  Those 
that  had  taken  them  asked  what  they  could  pay  for  their  ran- 
soms, without  much  hurting  their  fortunes,  and  willingly  be- 
lieved whatever  they  told  them  ;  for  they  declared  publicly  that 
they  did  not  wish  to  deal  harshly  with  any  knight  or  squire,  that 
his  ransom  should  be  so  burdensome  as  to  prevent  his  following 
the  profession  of  arms,  or  advancing  his  fortunes." 

The  Common  People  in  England. 

"It  is  customary  in  England,  as  well  as  in  several  other 
countries,  for  the  nobility  to  have  great  privileges  over  the 
commonalty,  whom  they  keep  in  bondage,  that  is,  they  are 
bound  by  law  and  custom  to  plough  the  lands  of  gentlemen,  to 
harvest  the  grain,  to  carry  it  home  to  the  barn,  to  thresh  and 
winnow  it ;  they  are  also  bound  to  harvest  the  hay  and  carry  it 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD.  393 

home.  .  .  .  The  evil-disposed  .  .  .  began  to  rise,  saying  they 
were  too  severely  oppressed;  that  at  the  beginning  of  the 
world  there  were  no  slaves,  and  that  no  one  ought  to  be  treated 
as  such,  unless  he  had  committed  treason  against  his  lord,  as 
Lucifer  had  done  against  God ;  but  they  had  done  no  such 
thing,  for  they  were  neither  angels  nor  spirits,  but  men  formed 
after  the  same  likeness  with  their  lords,  who  treated  them  as 
beasts.  This  they  would  not  longer  bear,  but  had  determined 
to  be  free  ;  and  if  they  laboured  or  did  any  work  for  their  lords, 
they  would  be  paid  for  it." 

t.    From  Sermon  of  John  Ball. 

"  Good  people,  .  .  .  things  will  never  be  well  in  England  so 
long  as  goods  be  not  in  common,  and  so  long  as  there  be  vil- 
leins and  gentlemen.  By  what  right  are  they  whom  we  call 
lords  greater  folk  than  we?  On  what  grounds  have  they  de- 
served it?  Why  do  they  hold  us  in  serfage?  ,If  we  all  came 
of  the  same  father  and  mother,  of  Adam  and  Eve,  how  can 
they  say  or  prove  that  they  are  better  than  we,  if  it  be  not  that 
they  make  us  gain  for  them  by  our  toil  what  they  spend  in  their 
pride  ?  They  are  clothed  in  velvet  and  warm  in  their  furs  and  their 
ermines,  while  we  are  covered  with  rags.  They  have  wine,  and 
spices,  and  fair  bread ;  and  we  oat-cake  and  straw,  and  water 
to  drink.  They  have  leisure  and  fine  houses  ;  we  have  pain  and 
labour,  the  rain  and  the  wind  in  the  fields.  And  yet  it  is  of  us 
and  of  our  toil  that  these  men  hold  their  state." 

j.    From  the  Memoirs  of  Philip  de  Comines. 

' '  The  hearts  of  kings  being  in  the  hands  of  God  Almighty 
alone,  he  disposes  them  in  such  important  affairs  as  is  most' 
proper  for  the  events  which  He,  in  His  heavenly  wisdom,  has 
determined  to  bring  to  pass.  For,  certainly,  had  it  been  His 
Divine  pleasure  that  our  king  should  have  continued  in  the 
resolution  which  he  had  formed  before  the  Duke  of  Burgundy's 
death,  the  wars  which  have  since  occurred,  and  still  continue, 
would  never  have  happened.  But  we  were  not  ready  on  either 
hand  to  receive  so  lasting  a  peace." 


394  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


"  For  if  great  princes  once  get  possession  of  any  towns  or 
castles,  though  they  may  belong  to  their  nearest  neighbors  .  .  . 
neither  natural  reason,  nor  love  of  our  neighbor,  nor  anything 
else  .  .  <  will  prevail  with  them  to  restore  them  ;  and  after  they 
have  once  published  some  artful  reasons  or  specious  pretence 
for  keeping  them,  everybody  applauds  their  reasons,  especially 
those  that  are  nearest  about  them.  .  .  .  The  brutishness  and 
ignorance  of  princes  are  very  dangerous  and  dreadful,  because 
the  happiness  or  misery  of  their  subjects  depends  wholly  upon 
them.  .  .  .  Who  can  apply  any  remedy  in  this  case  but  God 
alone." 

"There  is  a  necessity  that  every  prince  or  great  lord  should 
have  an  adversary  to  restrain  and  keep  him  in  humility  and 
fear,  or  else  there  would  be  no  living  under  them,  nor  near 
them." 

Te.    Astrological  Prescription. 

"  Engrave  the  image  of  Jupiter,  who  is  a  man  with  a  ram's 
head,  upon  tin  or  upon  a  white  stone,  at  the  day  and  hour  of 
Jupiter,  when  he  is  at  home,  as  in  Sagittarius,  or  in  the  Pisces, 
or  in  his  exaltation,  as  in  Cancer,  and  let  him  be  free  from  all 
obstruction,  particularly  from  the  evil  looks  of  Saturn  or  of 
Mars  ;  let  him  be  rapid,  and  not  burnt  by  the  sun  ;  in  a  word, 
wholly  auspicious.  Carry  this  image  upon  you,  made  as  above, 
and  according  to  all  the  above-mentioned  conditions,  and  you 
will  see  things  which  will  surpass  your  belief." 

STUDY  ON  6. 

From  a,  f,  and  k,  what  opinion  do  you  gain  of  the  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  the  period  ?  (Compare  laws,  p.  383.)  For  what  objects  was 
much  of  it  pursued?  To  what  sciences  would  alchemy  lead ?  Astrol- 
ogy ?  What  opinion  do  you  gain  of  the  attitude  of  the  people  towards 
the  Church?  What  class  of  the  clergy  seems  to  have  excited  this 
attitude?  What  reason  can  you  give  for  this?  In  what  countries 
is  this  feeling  expressed  most  strongly?  (Compare  lists.)  What 


LATER   MEDIAEVAL   PERIOD.  395 

abuses  seem  to  have  existed  within  the  Church?  What  strong  senti- 
ments are  expressed  in  regard  to  human  equality?  What  social 
oppression  is  strongly  felt?  By  what  class?  With  what  other  feel- 
ing does  it  appear  associated  ?  What  excuse  for  this  feeling  in  the 
laws  and  organizations  of  the  period?  (See  h  also.) 

What  class  on  the  whole  do  you  judge  were  the  oppressors  of  the 
period?  Proofs.  Was  Dante  Guelf  or  Ghibelin?  What  fact  is 
illustrated  by  each  quotation  from  him?  Make  a  list  of  knightly 
qualities  and  accomplishments.  In  what  extract  do  we  see  an  illus- 
tration of  the  chivalric  spirit  ?  In  what  way  was  this  spirit  limited  ? 
What  was  the  great  desire  of  each  of  the  characters  described  by 
Chaucer?  What  characteristics  of  the  period  illustrated  by  each 
extract?  To  what  class  did  Froissarfc  belong  in  his  sympathies? 
What  proof  do  these  extracts  give  of  the  pope's  endeavor  to  direct 
the  thought  and  knowledge  of  his  time  ?  What  would  h,  i,  j,  and  k 
teach  you  of  the  history  of  this  period,  if  you  had  no  other  source  of 
information  ? 

In  General. —  What  is  your  judgment  in  regard  to  the  jus- 
tice of  applying  the  term  "Dark  Ages"  to  this  period?  Why? 
What  nations  lead  during  this  time  in  politics,  in  art,  in  material 
civilization  ? 


396  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 


D.     RENAISSANCE    AND    REFORMATION    ERA, 

1492-1648   (1649  IN  ENGLAND). 

Discovery  of  America  to  Treaty  of  Westphalia. 

"  Thundering  and  bursting,     In  torrents,  in  waves ; 
Carolling  and  shouting    O'er  tombs,  amid  graves ; 
See  on  the  cumbered  plain,     Clearing  a  stage, 
Scattering  the  past  about,     Comes  a  new  age ! 

******* 
All  things  begin  again ;     Life  is  their  prize ; 
Earth  with  their  deeds  they  fill ;  Fill  with  their  cries." 

EMERSON. 

"  Up  friends,  forsake  these  secondary  schools, 
Which  give  grains,  units,  inches  for  the  whole ! 

*  *  *  *  *  #  # 

The  world's  the  book  where  the  eternal  Sense 
Wrote  his  own  thoughts.  .  .  . 
Turn  we  to  read  the  one  original." 

CAMPANELLA. 


STUDY  ON  REFORMATION  AND  RENAISSANCE  ERA, 
1490-1648. 

Chief  contemporary  sources  of  history :  State  papers  of 
various  European  courts,  consisting  of  treaties,  diplomatic 
correspondence,  official  records ;  laws ;  contemporary  liter- 
ature of  France,  England,  and  Germany;  contemporary 
works  of  art,  consisting  chiefly  of  Italian  and  German 
pictures ;  formulated  creeds  and  confessions  of  various 
sects,  such  as  the  Augsburg  Confession,  Theses  of  Luther, 
Scotch  Covenant ;  Hakluy t's  Voyages ;  private  letters  and 
diaries. 

Chief  modern  authorities  in  English :  In  general,  Dyer's 
Modern  History ;  Heeren's  -Works  upon  the  period  ;  Von 
Raumer's  History  of  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Cen- 


398  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

turies;  for  the  Reformation,  Ranke's  Era  of  the  Reforma- 
tion ;  for  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  Gardiner ;  for  Spain, 
Prescott's  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and  Philip  II.;  for 
the  Netherlands,  the  works  of  Motley;  for  England, 
Green's  History  of  the  English  People,  Gardiner's  England 
under  the  Stuarts,  and  Civil  War,  Ranke's  Seventeenth 
Century  in  England  ;  for  France,  Guizot,  Crowe ;  for  Italy, 
Symond's  Italian  -Renaissance. 


RENAISSANCE   FRIEZE-PATTERN   PROM  A  VENETIAN  CHURCH. 

Questions  oir  Map.  —  Compare  this  map  with  that  of  Europe  in 
the  twelfth  century ;  —  what  great  changes  have  occurred,  and  in  what 
countries  ?  What  part  of  the  feudal  organization  has  been  strength- 
ened by  these  changes?  How  does  the  map  show  this  ?  What  great 
differences  between  such  states  as  France,  Spain,  and  England,  and 
such  states  as  you  studied  in  ancient  Greece  ?  What  was  the  centre 
of  political  power  in  the  Greek,  and  later  ijn  the  Roman  state? 
What  fact  constitutes  the  basis  of  power  in  these  states  of  the 
Renaissance  ? 

1.  Events  and  Movements  of  Period. 

a.   In  general. 

Three  great  facts  characterize  this  epoch :  1st,  a  revolt 
from  the  ecclesiastical  headship  of  Rome,  known  as  the  Prot- 
estant Reformation;  as  a  consequence  of  this  revolt,  Germany 
and  England  are  entirely  separated  from  the  Latin  Church, 
and  form  independent  churches  under  the  control  of  their 
own  political  rulers ;  2d,  a  great  artistic  and  literary  out- 
burst, called  the  Renaissance,  largely  influenced  by  the  study 
of  ancient  art  and  poetry  ;  and  3d,  the  foundation  of  Euro- 


REFORMATION   AND   RENAISSANCE    ERA.  399 

pean  colonies  along  the  American  coast  and  in  the  newly 
opened  East  (India).  In  the  first  of  these  movements 
Germany  leads ;  in  the  second,  Italy ;  in  the  third,  Spain 
and  Portugal,  the  former  opening  the  Western,  the  latter 
opening  the  Eastern  world  to  Europe. 

b.   Imperial  (German). 

Maximilian,  emperor-elect,  takes  the  title  of 
King  of  Germany.  —  LUTHER,  an  Augustinian 
monk,  attacks  the  abuses  of  Church  practice 
and  certain  points  of  doctrine  by  ninety-five  theses,  which 
he  nails  upon  the  church-door  in  Wittenberg,  and  declares 
himself  ready  to  defend  (1517) ;  this  act  is  held  to  date 
the  opening  of  the  Reformation.  —  Zwingli  preaches  ref- 
ormation doctrines  in  Switzerland. 

Charles  V.,  Emperor  ;  —  from  his  grandfather, 
Ferdinand,  he  inherits  Spain,  Sardinia,  and  the 
Two  Sicilies ;  through  his  grandfather,  Maxi- 
milian, he  is  archduke  of  Austria,  and  is  thus  naturally 
elected  emperor;  from  his  grandmother  he  inherits  the 
Netherlands.  —  Pope  and  emperor  force  the  Florentines  to 
receive  as  rulers  the  Medici,  to  whom  they  give  the  title 
of  Grand  Dukes  of  Tuscany ;  the  popes  gain  new  Italian 
territory,  claiming  it  as  overlords  of  reverting  fiefs.  —  The 
pope  issues  a  bull  against  Luther,  who  burns  it  (1520). 
Luther  is  condemned  by  a  diet  of  the  empire  at  Worms, 
but  is  protected  by  his  own  sovereign,  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  and  many  princes  and  cities  receive  his  doctrines; 
a  peasant's  war  against  Church  and  State  breaks  out,  and 
proves  cruel  and  difficult  to  end.  —  The  Diet  of  Spires 
(Speyer,  1529)  passes  a  decree  against  any  change  in  the 
Church  ;  against  this  the  Lutherans  protest,  and  are  hence- 
forth called  Protestants. 

The  Turks  meanwhile  push  northward,  seize  Belgrade, 


400  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

besiege  Vienna,  and  conquer  large  parts  of  Hungary.  The 
Hungarian  king  perishing  in  battle,  his  title  passes  into 
the  hands  of  the  House  of  Austria,  who  thus  become  rulers 
of  Bohemia  and  Hungary.  During  this  same  time  the 
emperor  is  disputing  with  the  king  of  France  over  various 
Italian  territories. 

Protestants  make  a  formal  statement  of  their  faith  in 
the  Confession  of  Augsburg  (1530),  and  the  Protestant 
cities  and  princes  form  the  League  of  Smalkald. —  Calvin 
preaches  Protestantism  in  its  Presbyterian  form  in  Geneva; 
his  followers  spread  through  France  under  the  name  of 
Huguenots,  while  Knox  preaches  his  doctrines  in  Scot- 
land. —  The  Council  of  Trent  is  called  by  pope  and 
emperor,  in  order  to  reform  practical  abuses  in  the  Church, 
and  fix  its  doctrines  more  definitely  (1545). 

After  the  death  of  Luther  (1546)  war  breaks  out  be- 
tween the  Catholic  and  Protestant  princes  of  the  empire ; 
war  closed  by  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555),  which  al- 
lows the  prince  or  ruling  power  of  each  state  to  establish 
the  religion  of  his  own  domains  at  his  own  will. 

While  war  thus  goes  on  within  the  empire,  the  king  of 
France  and  the  emperor  are  fighting  over  their  border 
territories ;  in  the  end,  France  wins  from  the  empire  the 
bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  Verdun. 

A  Protestant  union  and  a  Catholic  league  are 

formed  under  leadership  of  strong  princes  of  the 

empire. 

THE  THIRTY   YEARS'   WAR. —  The   king   of    ( 

Bohemia,  who  becomes  Emperor  Ferdinand  the  Sec-    •< 

ond,  oppresses  and  persecutes  his  Protestant  sub-    ; 
jects;  Catholic  princes  join  the  emperor,  Protestant  princes, 
the  people ;  general  war  follows  between  the  Catholic  and    ' 
Protestant  princes  of  Germany.      The  emperor  with  his 
generals,  Tilly  and  Wallenstein,  is  gaining  the  upper  hand;    :* 


REFORMATION  AND  RENAISSANCE  ERA.  401 

the  Protestant  princes,  forming  a  Protestant  league,  get 
help  from  the  Protestant  king  of  Denmark;  when  he  is 
defeated,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  leads  the 
Protestants,  and  with  him  they  are  for  a  time  successful  : 
but  at  the  battle  of  Lutzen  (1632)  he  is  killed. 

The  French  now  enter  the  war,  giving  very  effective  aid 
against  the  emperor,  and  in  1648  affairs  are  settled  by  the 
Treaty  of  Westphalia,  whose  important  conditions  are  as 
follows :  — 

A  general  and  complete  amnesty  to  political  offenders, 
and  a  restoration  of  their  territories,  rights,  and  dignities ; 
every  estate  of  the  empire  allowed  to  vote  in  the  Diet, 
which  is  to  be  summoned  regularly ;  the  vote  of  the  ma- 
jority to  stand  as  its  decision,  except  in  case  of  questions 
of  religion  ;  each  prince  to  be  sovereign  in  his  own  province, 
under  the  emperor,  —  that  is,  his  territorial  power  is  com- 
plete ;  he  can  levy  tolls  and  taxes,  coin  money,  and  make 
alliances  as  he  himself  pleases ;  the  right  of  each  prince 
to  rule  the  religious  affairs  of  his  own  province  reestab- 
lished with  modifications;  an  end  put  to  the  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  of  Catholics  over  Protestants. 

The  entire  independence  of  the  republics  of  Switzerland 
and  the  United  Provinces  (Holland,  Netherlands)  is  ac- 
knowledged by  the  emperor  and  by  Europe ;  Sweden  re- 
ceives some  territory  in  the  north  of  Germany;  France 
gains  a  footing  in  Elsass  (Alsace)  ;  the  lands  of  Branden- 
burg are  increased. 

c.   Imperial  (Italy). 

Savonarola,  leader  of  the  democratic  party  in  Florence, 
preaches  and  popularizes  asceticism,  and  violently  attacks 
the  papacy.  Charles  VIII.  of  France  invades  Italy,  and 
conquers  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Wars  between  the 
empire,  France,  and  Spain  over  Naples,  end  in  1504  in  the 


402 


STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 


EUROPE 

after 

THIRTY  YEAR'S  WAR 


I  I  =    Portugal  .England,  Scotland  ,  Ireland,  Korway,  Russia, 

Germany (The  Empire]  ,  France,  Lands  of  Church. 

ymmm,  =   Holland,  Switzerland  .Venetian  Republic,  Genoese  Republic. 

Y///////I  =   Spanish  Possessions,  Poland.  II    F    =   Franche  Comte . 

Mohammedan  Lands ,  Denmark.          •      M  =  Milan. 
Swedish  Possessions  T  =  Tuscany. 

.........  =  JJie  Lnperial  Boundary  II    LL  =    Lorraine. 


REFORMATION   AND    RENAISSANCE   ERA.  403 

Spanish  possession  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Ferdinand,  king  of 
Spain,  Lewis,  king  of  France,  Maximilian,  emperor-elect, 
and  Pope  Julius  the  Second,  form  the  League  of  Cambray 
(1508)  in  order  to  divide  the  territories  of  Venice  between 
them.  War  between  Venice  and  the  League;  Venice  is 
weakened,  but  survives.  War  between  the  members  of  the 
League,  ending  in  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Italy. 
Francis  I.  of  France  attempts  a  new  invasion  of  Italy ; 
war  between  him  and  the  pope  and  emperor ;  Francis  is 
forced  to  renounce  his  Italian  claim  to  the  emperor,  Charles 
V.,  who  is  crowned  king  of  Italy.  The  smaller  Italian 
states  are  ruled  by  the  dictates  of  pope  and  emperor,  who 
support  their  influence  by  force  of  arms. 

STUDY  ON  I,  a,  b,  AND  c. 

What  tendencies  and  events  of  the  later  mediaeval  period  culminate 
in  each  of  the  three  great  facts  named  in  a  ?  What  historic  or  geo- 
graphic reason  can  you  give  for  the  special  lead  taken  respectively  by 
Italy,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Portugal  ?  What  fact  makes  Charles  V. 
the  strongest  monarch  of  his  age  ?  How  does  America  compare  in 
political  value  with  his  other  possessions  ?  In  what  does  its  value 
consist?  What  tendencies  and  facts  noticed  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  make  Luther's  success  certain  ?  Judging  from 
these  facts,  is  the  Reformation  movement  dependent  on  Luther  for  its 
strength  ?  What  facts  prove  that  he  is  a  representative  man  of  his  own 
time  ?  What  historical  fact  or  relation  tends  to  explain  the  popularity 
of  the  Reformation  movement  in  Germany  ?  What  quality  of  Teu- 
tonic character?  How  does  Charles  V.  acquire  the  right  to  govern 
the  lands  of  Spain,  Austria,  Naples,  and  the  Netherlands?  This 
fact  plainly  shows  that  land  is  regarded  by  the  monarchs  of  Europe  in 
what  way?  Prove  from  the  facts  of  the  century  1519-1618  that  the 
imperial  power  in  Germany  is  exceedingly  weak.  In  whose  hands  is 
the  political  power  of  the  empire?  What  event  proves  that  the 
Church  is  in  need  of  reformation  ?  Why  should  the  religious  differ- 
ences of  European  states  cause  war  between  them?  What  injustice 
in  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  ?  What  plausible  reason  could  be  given 
to  sustain  this  injustice  ?  Of  what  tendencies  is  the  Thirty  Years' 


404  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

War  the  culmination  ?  Do  you  consider  this  war  important  or  not, 
and  why  ?  What  proofs  have  we  in  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  that 
the  emperor  is  weaker  than  any  of  his  neighbors  ?  How  was  it  for 
the  interest  of  France  to  fight  against  the  emperor?  How  would 
you  describe  the  government  of  Germany  at  the  close  of  this  war? 
Judging  from  c,  what  is  the  great  ambition  of  the  European 
powers  ?  When  we  say  European  powers  at  this  period,  what  have 
we  in  mind? 

d.    Spanish. 

14Q3    I       Age   of   Ferdinand    and    Isabella.    (_Columbus 
TO        takes  possession  of  his  American  discoveries    in 

I_J  the  name  of  the  sovereigns  of  Spain  and  the  Holy 

Catholic  faith.  Florida  is  discovered  and  claimed  for  Spain. 
Ferdinand  conquers  Granada  and  that  part  of  Navarre 
lying  south  of  the  Pyrenees ;  holds  Sardinia  and  Sicily, 
and  conquers  Naples  from  its  rival  claimants. 

Age  of  Charles  I.  (JEmperor  Charles  Fi).  Con- 
quest of  Mexico  for  Spain  by  Cortez  ;  of  Peru  by 
Pizarro ;  Chili  and  New  Granada  are  also  con- 
quered and  claimed  by  Spaniards.  —  Negro  slaves  are  im- 
ported from  Africa  to  work  the  silver  mines  of  the  New 
World,  under  Spanish  direction. 

Age  of  Philip  II.  Persecution  of  Moors,  Jews, 
and  Christian  heretics  (Protestants)  ;  Philip  de- 
crees that  death  shall  be  the  penalty  for  any  one 
who  sells,  buys,  or  reads  a  book  proscribed  by  the  Church. 
The  Inquisition  condemns  heretics  to  the  fire  by  whole- 
sale (autos-de-fe).  —  Protestantism  spreads  through  the 
Northern  Netherlands  (Holland),  where  the  tyranny 
and  intolerance  of  Philip  rouse  all  classes  to  revolt. 
Though  quiet  is  restored,  Philip  sends  the  Duke  of  Alva, 
with  20,000  Spanish  troops,  into  the  Netherlands,  and 
taxes  and  restricts  them  more  than  before.  New  revolt 
breaks  forth,  ending  in  the  practical  independence  of  the 


REFORMATION  AND  RENAISSANCE  ERA.  405 

seven  northern  provinces  of  the  Netherlands   under  the 
rule  of    William  of  Oranye.   (1579). 

The  help  rendered  to  the  Netherlands  by  Elizabeth  of 
England,  together  with  her  treatment  of  the  Catholic 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  induces  Philip  to  fit  out  against 
England  the  GREAT  ARMADA.  This  famous  fleet  is  de- 
stroyed partly  by  terrible  tempests,  and  partly  by  English 
seamanship  and  valor  (1558).  —  800,000  peaceful  and  in- 
dustrious Moors  (Moriscoes)  are  expelled  from  Spain. 

e.   Portuguese. 

Portugal  (Vasco  da  Gama,  1498)  discovers  the  Eastern 
Ocean  route  to  India  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  colo- 
nizes all  along  the  coasts  of  Guinea,  Liberia,  Mozambique, 
and  the  Congo  in  Africa ;  in  Asia,  places  commercial  sta- 
tions (factories')  on  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of 
India  (Malabar  and  Golconda),  and  in  Java,  Sumatra,  and 
the  other  East  India  Islands;  in  America,  she  occupies 
and  settles  Brazil. 

/.    Dutch.  j- 

Holland,  having  become  practically  independent,  from 
1602  onward,  begins  to  send  out  trading  expeditions  to 
America  and  India.  In  1613  the  Dutch  establish  a  trading 
colony  (New  Amsterdam)  on  Manhattan  Island,  thus  be- 
coming the  founders  of  New  York  City.  They  make  vari- 
ous settlements  along  the  Hudson  (notably  Albany),  and 
also  in  Connecticut,  whence,  however,  they  are  driven  by 
the  English. 

g.    French. 

Age  of  Francis  I.  Francis  makes  a  "Con- 
cordat "  with  the  pope,  by  which  he  gains  the 
right  to  appoint  bishops  and  abbots,  on  condition 


1492 

TO 

1547. 


406  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

of  giving  the  pope  the  first  year's  revenue  from  their  lands. 

Persecutes  the  Huguenots.  Wars  with  Charles  V.  (see  b~) ; 
Continued  persecution  of  the  Huguenots ;  war 
of  the  French  king  with  Charles  V.,  resulting  in 
the  French  seizure  of  Metz,  Toul,  Verdun,  three 


bishoprics   lying   toward   the    Rhine.      France   is   largely 
ruled  by  Catherine  de  Medici,  the  Italian  queen-mother. 

Age  of  the  Civil  Wars  and  Henri/  IV.  The 
period  is  full  of  the  civil  wars  of  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  the  former  under  the  lead  of  the 


French  monarchs,  the  latter  headed  by  great  nobles,  the 
chief  among  whom  is  Henry  of  Navarre.  In  1572  the 
king,  urged  on  by  the  queen-mother,  orders  the  Massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  which  more  than  30,000  Huguenots 
are  slain.  In  the  course  of  these  wars,  the  succession  falls 
to  Henry  of  Navarre  (Henry  IV.),  who  is  not  recognized 
as  king  until  1593,  when  he  professes  himself  a  Roman 
Catholic.  He  finally  brings  the  conflict  to  a  close  by  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  which  gives  political  equality  to  Catho- 
lics and  Huguenots,  and  allows  the  freedom  of  the  new 
faith  to  certain  nobles  and  to  th^  citizens  of  certain  towns, 
but  forbids  its  exercise  at  the  dourt  or  in  Paris,  or  in  any 
cities  where  bishops  and  archbishops  reside. 

French  colonies  settle  Quebec  and  Port  Royal  (Annap- 
olis in  Nova  Scotia). 

Age  of  Richelieu  and  Mary  de,  Medici  (Italian 
queen-mother).  States-general  called  together 
in  1614  for  the  last  time  before  the  French  Revo- 
lution (1789).  Wars  of  king  with  the  nobles  and  with 
the  Huguenots ;  wars  with  Spain  over  territories  in  Italy, 
and  on  the  Spanish-French  frontier ;  alliance  with  German 
princes  against  the  emperor  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War ;  at 
the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  new  gains  of  territory  Rhine- 
ward  (see  p.  402). 


REFORMATION   AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA.  407 

In  America,  the  progressive  settlement  of  St.  Lawrence 
region  and  of  Nova  Scotia  (Acadia).  Many  Huguenots 
emigrate.  —  Constant  quarrels  with  English  over  disputed 
territories. 

N.  B.  During  all  this  period,  it  may  be  considered  that 
there  is  a  constant  struggle  between  the  crown  and  the 
powerful  nobles. 

h.    English. 

Contests  of  king  and  parliament;  the  whole 
North  American  coast  claimed  by  reason  of  the 
voyages  of  the  Cabots,  who  discovered  uncertain 
portions  of  it  between  Newfoundland  and  Florida. 

Age  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Cardinal  Wohey. 
Troubles  between  king  and  parliament ;  quarrel 
between  Henry  and  the  pope  because  the  latter 
delays  and  refuses  to  grant  him  a  divorce  from  his  true  and 
lawful  wife,  Catherine  of  Aragon ;  as  a  result  of  this  quar- 
rel, Henry  denies  the  right  of  the  pope  to  meddle  in  English 
political  or  civil  affairs,  and  declares  himself  the  head  of  the 
Church  in  England ;  parliament  by  the  Act  of  Supremacy 
declares  the  English  king  "  Protector  and  only  Supreme 
Head  of  the  Church  and  Clergy  in  England."  Refusal  to 
acknowledge  this  is  punished  with  death.  The  English 
monasteries  are  visited,  examined,  dissolved,  and  their 
property  is  confiscated  to  the  king.  An  English  translation 
of  the  Bible  (Tyndale's)  is  published  by  order  of  the  king, 
find  parliament  defines  the  doctrines  which  must  be  held 
by  the  English  Church. 

Edward  VL  (Protestant)  and  "  Bloody  Mary  " 
(Catholic).     Reformed  doctrines  introduced;  par- 
liament orders  a  uniform  service  throughout  the 
churches,  and  the  king  introduces  the  book  of  common 
prayer.  —  Quarrels  in  regard  to  the  succession.  —  Persecu- 


408  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

tion  of   Protestants  by  Mary;   hundreds  burned  at   the 
stake.     England  loses  Calais  to  France. 

Age  of  Elizabeth.  The  English  Church  is  fully 
established  with  a  uniform  service,  uniform 
prayers  and  confessions,  arranged  by  the  parlia- 
ment and  the  queen,  who  is  the  recognized  head  of  the 
"  Established  Church."  The  government  has  much  trouble 
with  the  "  Dissenters "  from  this  arrangement ;  contests 
arise  in  Scotland  between  the  Catholics,  headed  by  Queen 
Mary,  and  the  Protestants,  headed  by  John  Knox.  The 
crown  of  Elizabeth  is  claimed  by  Mary,  who  is  supported  by 
a  strong  party,  and  in  whose  behalf  conspiracies  and  plots 
are  constantly  formed,  until  Elizabeth  finally  orders  her 
beheaded.  —  Spanish  Armada  (see  p.  405). — Virginia  is  ex- 
plored and  claimed  for  England  by  Raleigh ;  Sir  Francis 
Drake  sails  round  the  world,  and  claims  for  his  queen  the 
northern  California!!  coast;  the  East  India  Company  is 
chartered  for  India  trade.  —  Troubles  arise  in  Ireland. 

Age  of  the  Stuarts  (James  I.  and  Charles  /.). 
The  House  of  Tudor  ending  with  Elizabeth, 
James,  son  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  succeeds  to 
the  thrones  of  both  England  and  Scotland ;  laws  are  passed 
unfavorable  and  grievous  to  Puritans,  Roman  Catholics, 
and  other  dissenters  from  the  English  Church.  The  king 
imposes  taxes  without  consent  of  parliament;  quarrels 
between  king  and  parliament  as  to  the  amount  of  money 
to  be  granted  to  the  king.  —  New  translation  of  the  Bible 
made  under  the  direction  and  authorization  of  the  king 
("King  James'  Version").  —  Constant  and  increasing 
quarrel  of  king  and  parliament  on  the  question  of  the  right 
of  the  king  to  impose  taxes  and  laws  without  parliamentary 
consent.  This  quarrel  continues  under  Charles  the  First 
until  parliament,  unable  to  obtain  any  redress  of  grievances 
from  Charles,  and  led  on  by  Sir  John  Eliot,  Oliver  Crom- 


REFORMATION    AND   RENAISSANCE   EEA.  409 

well,  Pym,  Hampden,  and  their  supporters,  assumes  con- 
trol of  the  army,  and  declares  war  in  behalf  of  the  public 
safety  (1642).  In  Scotland,  the  "Solemn  League  and 
Covenant"  to  defend  the  principles  of  the  Reformation 
and  resist  innovation  is  signed  by  large  numbers,  and  the 
Scottish  "  Kirk  "  is  formed,  a  church  independent  of  the 
State.  — Civil  war  follows,  between  the  king,  supported  by 
loyalists  and  followers  of  the  established  Church,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  parliament,  supported  by  dissenting 
troops  under  the  lead  of  Cromwell,  on  the  other.  The  king 
taken  prisoner,  refuses  the  terms  imposed;  the  Scots  de- 
liver him  to  parliament,  who  judge  him  guilty  of  death,  and 
Jan.  30,  1649,  Charles  I.  is  executed.  During  this  time 
Virginia,  Maryland,  Massachusetts  (Boston  and  vicinity), 
Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut  are  colonized,  largely  by 
those  who  do  not  find  sufficient  religious  liberty  at  home ; 
these  colonies  obtain  their  charters  from  the  king,  who 
grants  them  sometimes  to  nobles  like  Lord  Baltimore, 
sometimes  to  trading  corporations  like  the  Plymouth 
Company. 

STUDY  ON   I,  d-h. 

What  proofs  in  these  events  that  Spain,  France,  and  England  ha-*  e 
become  strong,  centralized  feudal  monarchies?  Give  examples  from 
each  country.  What  proves  their  strength?  Their  centralization? 
Their  feudal  character?  Why  should  reading  become  a  crime? 
What  political  danger  in  it  for  an  absolute  monarch  ?  For  the  unity 
of  the  Church  ?  What  historic  and  what  geographical  reason  for  the 
maritime  and  commercial  activity  of  the  Dutch  ?  What  historic  anta- 
gonism strengthened  the  hostility  of  Catholics  and  Protestants  in 
France?  What  two  causes  would  you  name  for  the  establishment 
of  an  independent  Church  in  England?  What  oppression  is  con- 
nected with  this  establishment  ?  What  would  you  name  as  the  two 
causes  of  the  "  civil  wars  "  in  England  ?  When  did  each  of  these 
causes  begin  to  work?  By  what  measures  could  these  wars  have  been 
averted?  On  whom  does  their  responsibility  rest?  In  what  ways 
did  the  Stuarts  violate  the  "  Great  Charter." 


410  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

GENERAL   STUDY  ON   I. 

What  are  the  two  leading  interests  of  European  nations?  Which 
of  these  two  appears  to  you  the  stronger  ?  Support  your  opinion  by 
facts.  Prove  that  these  interests  are  common  to  peoples  and  their 
kings.  During  this  age,  in  what  two  ways  does  America  serve  Europe  ? 
What  great  change  in  the  relation  of  Church  and  State  tends  to  take 
place  in  this  period  ?  In  what  countries  is  that  change  completely 
made  ?  What  are  the  political  units  of  Europe  in  this  period  ?  What  or 
who  represents  these  units  ?  What  are  the  bonds  of  union  within  them? 

2.  List  of  Famous  Works,  Structures,  Foundations,  In- 
ventions, Discoveries,  Enterprises,  and  Improvements 
of  the  Period. 

a.   Literary  Works. 

English  dramas,  based  on  historical  and  romantic  stories, 
drawn  from  English,  classic,  and  Italian  sources ;  many  of 
these  dramas  were  modelled  on  the  laws  of  the  Greek 
stage,  but  their  characters,  language,  and  situations  were 
taken  from  actual,  contemporary  life,  while  they  were 
written  to  be  acted  before  audiences  containing  people  of 
all  ranks.  Their  most  famous  authors  were  William 
Shakespeare,  the  son  of  a  well-to-do  English  trader,  and 
Ben  Jonson,  the  son  of  a  clergyman.  —  The  poem  of  the 
"  Faery  Queen,"  written  in  honor  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
embodying  contemporary  ideas  in  religion  and  politics,  and 
a  number  of  contemporary  characters,  under  allegorical 
forms  of  knights  and  ladies  and  dragons  of  mediaeval  ro- 
mance ;  many  of  the  allusions  and  illustrations,  however, 
are  classic ;  its  author  was  Edmund  Spenser,  of  gentle  birth 
and  classic  university  training.  He  and  his  contemporaries 
greatly  enriched  the  English  language  by  introducing  new 
poetical  forms,  suggested  by  or  copied  from  Italian  models. 
Of  these  the  most  famous  and  useful  were  the  sonnet  and 
blank  verse  measure.  —  The  Italian  poems  of  "  Orlando 
Furioso "  and  the  "Jerusalem  Delivered";  the  subject 


REFORMATION   AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA.  411 

of  the  former  was  taken  from  the  mediaeval  romances  con- 
cerning Roland,  the  nephew  of  Charlemagne ;  its  author 
was  Ariosto,  a  man  of  good  Italian  family,  and  a  finely 
educated  Latinist.  The  latter  is  based  upon  the  rescue  of 
Jerusalem  by  the  crusaders,  and  its  hero  is  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon ;  its  author,  Tasso,  was  of  good  family,  and 
finely  educated  in  the  classics.  —  The  Portuguese  poem  of 
the  "  Lusiad,"  by  Camoens,  the  son  of  a  sea-captain,  but  a 
man  of  classical  training,  who  desired  to  be  to  his  own 
country  what  Homer  was  to  Greece.  Though  thus  in- 
spired, the  poem  abounds  in  scenes  and  allusions  drawn 
from  contemporary  life,  action,  and  circumstances. 

English  essays  on  various  practical,  social,  moral,  and 
intellectual  subjects ;  the  most  famous  of  these  are  those 
written  by  Bacon,  the  son  of  a  noble  house,  and  highly 
educated  at  Cambridge  University.  —  French  essays,  simi- 
lar to  the  above,  written  by  Montaigne,  a  man  of  baronial 
rank  and  an  admirable  Latinist. 

Romances,  originating  for  the  most  part  in  France  and 
Spain,  taking  their  characters  and  motives  from  the  chiv- 
alrous life  and  legend  of  the  middle  ages,  their  chief 
interest  lying  in  love  and  adventure.  —  "  Don  Quixote,"  a 
Spanish  romance  written  to  satirize  the  knights  and  ladies, 
and  improbable  situations  of  the  popular  romance.  Its 
author,  Cervantes,  was  a  poor  but  well-born  Spaniard.  — 
"  Gargantua  and  Pantagruel,"  a  satirical  romance  written 
by  Rabelais,  a  French  priest  and  physician,  thoroughly 
trained  in  linguistic  study.  This  work  attacks,  under 
fictitious  names  and  a  fanciful  plot,  all  the  civil  and  relig- 
ious authorities  of  the  time. — The  "Praise  of  Folly,"  a 
satire  on  the  foolishness  of  all  classes  of  society,  but  par- 
ticularly fearless  in  its  attacks  upon  the  Church.  Its 
author,  Erasmus,  was  a  Dutchman  of  obscure  birth,  but  of 
admirable  classical  training. 


412  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Translations  of  the  Bible  made  from  Latin  and  Greek 
into  the  languages  of  modern  Europe ;  of  these  the  most 
famous  are  King  James'  Version  (see  p.  408)  and  Luther's 
German  translation.  —  Chapman's  translation  of  Homer 
into  English.  —  The  whole  age  is  famous  for  its  transla- 
tions, from  both  classical  and  modern  tongues,  as  well  as 
from  the  Arabic. 

b.    Works  of  Art  (Painting  and  Sculpture). 

The  frescoes  on  the  ceiling  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  of  the 
Vatican  palace,  painted  for  Pope  Julius  II. ;  subjects, 
scriptural ;  the  tomb  of  the  Medici,  made  for  the  Medici 
family  in  Florence,  adorned  with  portrait-statues  studied 
from  the  life,  and  with  allegorical  figures ;  the  statue  of 
David,  executed  for  the  city  of  Florence ;  that  of  Moses, 
made  for  Pope  Julius  II.  All  these  were  the  work  of 
Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti,  a  man  of  noble  birth,  trained 
by  one  of  the  best  artists  of  the  time,  and  a  thorough  stu- 
dent of  the  remains  of  Greek  art  and  of  the  living  human 
anatomy.  —  Frescoes  painted  for  Pope  Julius  II.,  in  vari- 
ous rooms  and  passages  of  the  Vatican ;  subjects,  scrip- 
tural, their  style  largely  influenced  by  the  study  of  Greek 
and  Roman  art ;  pictures  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  at  various 
notable  periods  of  her  life,  and  pictures  of  the  Holy 
Family,  executed,  for  the  most  part,  for  churches ;  figures 
in  these  pictures  studied  from  real  life ;  frescoes  for  vari- 
ous palaces  in  Rome,  executed  from  the  study  of  living 
models,  on  various  mythological  and  allegorical  subjects ; 
portraits  of  wealthy  ecclesiastics  and  nobles ;  —  this  work 
was  all  done  by  Raphael,  born  of  a  family  of  artists, 
and  trained  by  the  best  artistic  masters.  —  The  fresco- 
painting  of  "  The  Last  Supper,"  painted  for  a  Milanese 
convent  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  a  man  of  noble  birth  and 
artistic  training ;  this  same  artist  also  painted  many  por- 


REFORMATION   AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA. 


413 


traits.  —  The  scriptural,  allegorical,  and  historical  paint- 
ings of  Rubens,  a  German  artist,  trained  in  Italy,  and 
employed  to  decorate  churches  and  palaces  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  in  France.  —  The  portraits,  studies  from  every- 
day life,  and  historical  and  scriptural  paintings  of  Rem- 


FOUNTAINS   HALL. 
A  Yorkshire  lord's  country-house  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

brandt,  a  miller's  son,  trained  by  artists  in  Holland. — 
The  paintings  and  engravings  of  Albert  Durer,  the  son 
of  a  German  goldsmith,  educated  to  his  art  by  working 
with  painters,  and  by  travel  in  Italy  and  Germany.  His 
subjects  are  largely  scriptural  and  allegorical,  but  their 


414  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

details  are  studied  from  actual  contemporary  life.  —  The 
portrait-pictures  of  the  younger  Holbein,  and  of  Yandyck. 
Vandyck  was  court-painter  of  Charles  I.,  and  acquired 
his  art  by  Italian  study  and  travel  and  by  the  training  of 
Rubens;  Henry  VIII.  was  the  patron  of  Holbein,  who 
studied  with  his  father,  a  German  painter,  and  travelled ; 
his  "  Dance  of  Death,"  one  of  the  most  popular  works  of 
the  time,  was  a  series  of  pictures  designed  to  show  the 
equality  of  all  men  and  the  vanity  of  human  pride.  » 

Aside  from  these  greatest  works,  this  age  produced 
numberless  pictures  of  a  high  order  of  merit,  ordered  by 
kings,  popes,  cardinals,  princes,  and  wealthy  merchants, 
for  the  adornment  of  palaces  and  churches. 

c.   Buildings,  Establishments,  and  Foundations. 

The  Escorial  (see  p.  416).  —  The  Louvre,  a  royal  palace 
built  by  Francis  I.,  who  erected  other  great  palaces  in  various 
places,  notably  that  of  Fontainebleau,  to  which  was  attached 
a  great  royal  forest,  miles  in  extent,  kept  to  give  the  king 
and  his  court  the  pleasures  of  the  hunt.  —  The  Tuileries, 
built  in  Paris  by  the  queen-mother,  Catherine  de  Medici, 
and  continued  by  Henry  IV.  —  Whitehall  Palace,  built  in 
London  for  the  Stuarts.  —  Many  of  the  famous  palaces  of 
Genoa,  Venice,  Florence,  Rome,  date  back  to  this  period ; 
they  were  built  by  wealthy  or  noble  families,  often  by  mer- 
chants, and  were  adorned  with  fine  marbles  and  alabas- 
ters, enriched  with  carving  and  inlaid  work,  and  often 
contain  masterpieces  of  painting.  —  Many  of  the  fine  Eng- 
lish country-houses  also  belong  to  this  time  (see  Fountains 
Hall  for  typical  example). 

St.  Peter's  at  Rome  (see  p.  417).  —  Cathedrals  in  Sego- 
via, Salamanca,  Saragossa. 

New  colleges  added  to  the  universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge ;  schools  for  elementary  instruction,  uncon- 


REFORMATION    AND    RENAISSANCE   ERA. 


415 


416 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


nected  with  the  Church,  established  in  Florence  (Savona- 
rola),   Germany    (Luther),    England    (Colet),    Scotland 
(Knox),  Geneva  (Calvin). 
Manufactures  of  fine  pottery  established  and  aided  by 


THE   ESCORIAL. 

This  building  was  erected  near  Madrid  by  Philip  II.  in  consequence  of  a  vow  made  in 
battle.  It  is  at  once  a  palace,  a  mausoleum,  a  monastery,  and  a  cburch.  It  contains 
a  library  of  130,000  volumes,  and  thousands  of  Arabic  MSB. 


the  wealth  of  kings  and  nobles,  in  Italy,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Holland.  —  Tapestry  manufactures  established 
in  France  by  Francis  I.  and  Henry  TV.  The  latter  iro- 


REFORMATION    AND   RENAISSANCE  ERA.  417 


418  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

ported  from   Italy  skilled  workmen  in  gold  and   silk.  -- 
Manufactures  of  wool  firmly  established  in  England. 

d.    Voyages  and  Enterprises. 

Columbus,  a  Genoese  sailor  of  plebeian  birth,  well-read 
in  geography  and  mathematics,  with  funds  furnished  by 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  monarchs  of  Spain,  sailed  west- 
ward to  find  a  route  to  India ;  discovered  the  West  Indies, 
and  took  possession  of  them  for  Spain  and  the  Church. — 
The  Cabots,  sailing  under  the  auspices  of  Henry  VII., 
discovered  the  mainland  of  North  America,  and  opened  the 
Newfoundland  fisheries  to  English  enterprise.  —  Spaniards 
and  Portuguese,  constantly  exploring  and  settling,  planted 
colonies  through  the  American  islands  and  coasts  lying 
south  of  the  West  Indies.  —  The  Spaniard  Balboa  crossed 
the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  and  discovered  the  Pacific. —  Magal- 
hlies  (Magellan),  a  Portuguese  in  Spanish  service, 
made  the  first  voyage  round  the  world,  entering 
the  Pacific  around  Cape  Horn. — Pizarro  and 
Cortez  discovered  and  conquered  —  the  former  Peru,  the 
latter  Mexico  —  for  Spain.  While  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese thus  worked  southward,  the  coasts  of  North  America 
were  gradually  explored  and  colonized  by  English,  Dutch, 
and  French  (see  1).  —  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  whale- 
fishery  was  established. 

During  this  period  the  Order  of  Jesuits,  or  the  Order  of 
Jesus,  was  founded  by  the  Spaniard  Loyola,  with  the  avowed 
object  of  turning  to  the  true  Roman  Catholic  faith  both 
heretics  and  heathen.  This  order  rapidly  spread,  and  its 
members,  who  were  men  of  good  education  and  earnest 
purpose,  were  found  in  every  part  of  the  world.  They 
labored  alike  to  arrest  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation 
and  to  reform  the  practical  abuses  of  the  Church ;  they 
bound  themselves  by  the  old  monastic  vows  of  chastity, 


REFORMATION  AND   RENAISSANCE  ERA.  419 

poverty,  and  obedience.  As  missionaries  to  the  heathen, 
they  went  fearlessly  to  India,  China,  Japan,  East  and  West 
Indies,  and  all  the  new  American  coasts.  In  Paraguay 
they  succeeded  in  Christianizing  and  civilizing  the  whole 
iiative  population. 

e.   Investigations  and  Studies. 

The  "  Novum  Organum  "  of  Bacon,  —  a  development  of 
the  scientific  or  inductive  method  of  study  as  opposed 
to  the  deductive  method  of  Aristotle.  Bacon  maintained 
that  knowledge  begins  with  experience  of  details,  and  that 
only  by  observing  and  comparing  these  details  can  men 
arrive  at  any  trustworthy  general  truths.  This  method  is 
that  now  followed  in  all  scientific  study.  —  The  astronomi- 
cal discoveries  of  Copernicus,  Kepler,  Galileo.  The  last 
and  greatest  was  an  Italian  professor  in  North  Italian 
universities ;  he  invented  the  telescope,  and  established 
the  fact  of  the  revolution  of  the  earth  about  the  sun ; 
this  being  directly  opposed  to  the  astronomical  teaching 
of  the  Church,  he  was  persecuted,  arrested,  and  silenced 
by  the  Inquisition. — The  revival  of  the  Platonic  philoso- 
phy as  opposed  to  that  of  Aristotle,  and  the  study  of  the 
original  Greek ;  these  studies  were  much  sympathized  in 
and  partly  urged  forward  by  the  reformers,  notably  by 
Erasmus  and  Melancthon,  and  by  Dean  Colet  and  Sir 
Thomas  More,  in  England.  —  The  philosophical  system  of 
Descartes,  a  French  mathematician  and  scientist,  who  de- 
rived all  authority  for  truth  from  the  statement,  "  I  think, 
therefore  I  am."  —  The  discovery  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  by  Harvey,  an  English  physician  who  had 
studied  medicine  at  Cambridge  and  in  Padua.  —  The 
study  into  the  principles  of  international  law,  and  the 
foundation  of  that  study  as  a  science,  by  the  Dutchman, 
Hugo  Grotius. 


420  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

/.   Inventions  and  Improvements. 

Gunpowder  came  into  general  use  in  war,  and  was  com- 
monly employed  in  the  wars  of  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 
in  connection  with  cannon  and  rude  forms  of  firearms. — 
The  streets  of  Paris  were  publicly  lighted.  —  Stoves,  chim- 
neys, glass  for  windows,  coaches,  carpets  came  into  com- 
mon use  among  the  well-to-do. 

STUDY  ON   2. 

What  new  forms  of  literature  appear  in  this  age  ?  What  new  class 
of  men  appear  as  authors  ?  From  what  occupation  has  this  class  been 
freed,  and  how  ?  What  nation  leads  in  literature  ?  What  influences  ap- 
pear in  English  literature?  What  relation  between  the  appearance  of 
these  influences  and  the  invention  of  printing  ?  What  influence  will  the 
translations  of  the  period  have  upon  the  unity  of  Europe  ?  Why  ?  What 
is  there  original  in  this  literature  ?  What  do  you  find  in  this  literature 
resulting  from  or  sympathizing  with  the  Reformation  movement? 

What  art  belongs  especially  to  the  Renaissance  period  ?  What  three 
influences  are  felt  by  this  ai-t?  Illustrate.  What  country  leads  in 
art?  What  country  stands  second?  On  whom  does  art  depend  for 
its  success  and  opportunity  ? 

What  notable  differences  between  Fountains  Hall,  p.  413,  and  Pierre- 
fond  Castle,  p.  375?  What  cause  can  you  assign  for  the  differences? 
What  influences  can  be  seen  in  the  Borghese  Court,  p.  4l5?  In  St. 
Peter's,  p.  417?  In  whose  hands  is  the  wealth  of  Europe  massed? 
Proofs  from  b  and  c.  What  relation  between  the  military  power  of 
the  kings  and  their  employment  of  standing  armies,  and  the  use  of 
wealth  by  the  nobles  of  the  Renaissance  ? 

What  relation  between  the  Reformation  and  learning  ?  What  re- 
lation between  the  kings  and  the  material  and  commercial  progress 
of  the  period?  It  is  said  that  the  discovery  of  America  and  the 
circumnavigation  of  Africa  ruined  the  prosperity  of  the  Italian  cities ; 
why  should  this  be  so  ?  What  new  route  to  India,  established  in  our 
own  time,  might  partially  restore  their  importance?  What  faith 
accompanies  the  European  civilization  ? 

What  class  of  studies  becomes  important  in  this  era?  What  change 
in  the  authority  to  which  men  look  ?  What  country  leads  in  this 
intellectual  movement  ? 

Whom  do  the  inventions  and  discoveries  of  this  age  serve?  How 
does  each  of  the  mottoes  on  p.  396  apply  to  this  period  ? 


REFORMATION    AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA.  421 

3.  Extracts  Illustrative  of  Life   and    Thought   of  the 
Time. 

a.  From  Letters  of  Columbus  to  the  Spanish  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  and  to  the  Spanish  Monarclis,  "  respecting  the 
Islands  found  in  the  Indies."  (Hakluvt  Society.) 

"Believing  that  you  will  take  pleasure  in  hearing  of  the  great 
success  which  our  Lord  has  granted  me  in  my  voyage,  I  write 
you  this  letter,  whereby  you  will  learn  how  in  thirty-three  days' 
time  I  reached  the  Indies  with  the  fleet  which  the  most  illus- 
trious king  and  queen,  our  sovereigns,  gave  to  me,  where  I 
found  very  mam"  islands  thickly  peopled,  of  all  which  I  took 
possession  .  .  .  for  their  Highnesses.  .  .  .  San  Domingo  is  a 
wonder,  its  mountains  and  plains,  and  meadows,  and  fields 
are  so  beautiful  and  rich  for  planting  and  sowing,  and  rearing 
cattle  of  all  kinds,  and  for  building  towns  and  villages.  The 
harbours  on  the  coast,  and  the  number  and  size  and  wholesome- 
ness  of  the  rivers,  most  of  them  bearing  gold,  surpass  anything 
that  would  be  believed.  .  .  .  Our  Redeemer  hath  granted  this 
victory  to  our  illustrious  king  and  queen,  .  .  .  who  have  ac- 
quired great  fame  by  an  event  of  such  high  importance,  in 
which  all  Christendom  ought  to  rejoice,  and  which  it  ought  to 
celebrate  with  great  festivals  and  the  offering  of  solemn  thanks 
to  the  Holy  Trinity,  .  .  .  both  for  the  great  exaltation  which 
may  accrue  to  them  in  turning  so  many  nations  to  our  holy 
faith,  and  also  for  the  temporal  benefits  which  will  bring 
great  refreshment  and  gain,  not  only  to  Spain,  but  to  all 
Christians." 

"...  In  all  the  countries  visited  by  your  Highnesses'  ships, 
I  have  caused  a  high  cross  to  be  fixed  upon  every  headland, 
and  have  proclaimed  to  every  nation  that  I  have  discovered,  the 
lofty  estate  of  your  Highnesses  and  of  your  court  in  Spain. 
I  also  tell  them  all  I  can  respecting  our  holy  faith  and  of  the 
belief  in  the  holy  Mother  Church.  .  .  .  Your  Highnesses  have 
become  the  masters  of  another  world,  where  our  holy  faith  may 
become  so  much  increased,  and  whence  such  stores  of  wealth 
may  be  derived." 


422  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

b.   From  Sir    Walter  Raleigh's  Account  of  the  Discovery  of 
Guiana.     (Hakluyt  Society.) 

"...  The  common  soldier  shal  here  fight  for  gold,  and  pay 
himselfe  in  steede  of  pence,  with  plates  of  halfe  a  foote  brode, 
whereas  he  breaketh  his  bones  in  other  warres  for  ...  penury. 
Those  commanders  and  Chieftaines,  that  shoote  at  honour  and 
abundance,  shal  find  there  more  rich  and  bewtifull  cities,  more 
temples  adorned  with  golden  Images,  more  sepulchers  filled  with 
treasure,  than  .  .  .  Cortes  found  in  Mexico,  .  .  .  and  the  shining 
glorie  of  this  conquest  will  eclipse  all  those  so  f arre  extended 
beames  of  the  Spanish  nation.  .  .  .  The  soile  besides  is  so 
excellent  and  so  full  of  rivers,  as  it  will  carrie  sugar,  ginger, 
and  all  those  other  commodities  which  the  West  Indies  hath.  .  .  . 
For  whatsoever  Prince  shall  possesse  it,  shall  bee  greatest,  and 
if  the  king  of  Spayne  enjoy  it,  he  will  become  unresistable.  .  .  . 
I  trust  in  God  .  .  .  that  he  which  is  ...  Lorde  of  Lords,  will 
put  it  into  her  hart  which  is  Lady  of  Ladies  to  possesse  it." 

c.     Why  the  Abbot  of  Wardon  resigned  his  Office  in  1538. 

"  Item,  that  whereas  we  be  commanded  to  have  early  lecture 
of  divinity,  we  have  none  ;  and  when  it  is  read,  few  or  none  of 
the  monks  come  to  it.  Item,  I  did  assign  Thomas  Londone  to 
read  the  divinity  lecture,  and  he  (unknowing  to  me)  did  read 
the  books  of  Eccius  Omelies,  which  books  be  all  carnal  and  of 
a  brutal  understanding,  and  treat  of  many  things  clean  against 
the  church  of  England.  And  so  soon  as  I  had  knowledge  of 
this,  I  caused  my  brother  to  read  the  lecture  ;  and  then  few  or 
none  of  them  would  come  at  him.  Item,  for  as  much  as  I  did 
perceive  ignorance  was  a  great  cause  why  that  these  my  brethren 
were  thus  far  out  of  good  order  and  in  continual  unquietness, 
I  caused  books  of  grammar  to  be  bought  for  each  of  them,  and 
assigned  m}*-  brother  to  instruct  them,  but  there  would  come 
none  to  him  but  one  Richard  Balldok  and  Thomas  Clement. 
Item,  they  be  in  number  15  brethren,  and  except  3  of  them, 
none  understand  nor  know  their  rule  nor  the  statutes  of  their 


REFORMATION   AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA.  423 

religion,  /fern,  in  Lent  I  did  send  forth  Thomas  Warden  in 
this  house's  business,  and  he  did  sit  at  Shesford  all  night  at 
the  ale  house,  and  came  home  in  the  morning  at  matin  time, 
for  the  which  cause  I  would  have  ministered  correction  to  him, 
but  he  declared  openly  before  the  convent  that  I  had  no  au- 
thority to  correct  him',  and  stirred  them  seditiously  against  me, 
insomuch  that  Christopher  threatened  me  and  my  servants. 
Thus  I  was  in  such  fear  that  I  did  command  my  servants  to 
watch  my  chamber  4  nights  after  till  their  fury  was  somewhat 
assuaged.  .  .  .  Item,  William  Carington,  Thomas  Bikkliswade, 
Thomas  London,  John  Cliff  tone,  Christopher  Warden,  be  com- 
mon drunkards." 

John  ap  Rice  writes  about  1535  of  the  monastery  of  Bury : 
t;  Amongst  the  relics  we  found  much  vanity  and  superstition, 
as  the  coals  that  St.  Lawreace  was  toasted  withal,  the  paring 
of  St.  Edmund's  nails,  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury's  penknife 
and  boots,  and  divers  skulls  for  the  headache,  and  pieces  of 
the  holy  cross  able  to  make  a  holy  cross  of." 

d.   From  Letters  of  Luther  to  Pope  Leo  X.  (about  1518). 

' '  I  have  heard  the  worst  account,  most  blessed  father,  touch- 
ing myself,  namely,  that  certain  friends  have  made  my  name 
most  odious  to  you  and  yours,  as  of  one  who  was  labouring  to 
diminish  the  authority  and  power  of  the  keys  and  of  the  Su- 
preme Pontiff;  and  that  I  am  called  a  heretic,  an  apostate,  a 
traitor,  and  a  thousand  other  ignominious  names.  These  things 
shock  and  amaze  me ;  one  thing  only  sustains  me,  a  sense  of 
innocence." 

He  goes  on  to  speak  thus  of  his  theses :  "By  what  unlucky 
chance  it  is,  that  these  particular  propositions  of  mine,  more 
than  all  others,  should  go  forth  into  nearly  all  the  earth,  I  am 
at  a  loss  to  know.  Thev  were  set  forth  here  for  our  use  alone, 
and  how  they  should  come  to  everybody's  knowledge  is  incredi- 
ble to  me.  .  .  .  But  what  shall  I  do?  Recall  them  I  cannot; 
and  yet  I  see  that  their  notoriety  bringeth  upon  me  great  odium. 
In  order,  then,  to  soften  my  adversaries  and  to  gratify  many 


424  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

friends,  I  send  forth  these  trifles  [proofs,  etc.]  to  explain  my 
theses.  For  the  greater  safety  I  let  them  go  forth,  most  blessed 
father,  under  your  name,  and  under  the  shadow  of  your  protec- 
tion. Here,  all  who  will  ma}'  see  how  sincerely  I  honour  the 
ecclesiastical  power  and  reverence  the  Keys,  and  also  how  basely 
I  am  reproached  and  belied  by  my  enemies.  .  .  .  Save  or 
sla3T,  call  or  recall,  approve  or  disapprove,  as  it  shall  best 
please  you,  I  will  acknowledge  your  voice  as  the  voice  of  Christ 
presiding  and  speaking  in  you." 

To  his  friend  Spalatin  he  writes  :  "A  heretic  I  will  never  be  ; 
err  I  may  in  disputation.  But  I  wish  to  decide  no  doctrine ; 
only  I  am  not  willing  to  be  the  slave  of  the  opinions  of  men." 

To  Staupitz,  "I  see  that  attempts  are  made  at  Rome  that 
the  kingdom  of  truth,  ?'.e.,  of  Christ,  be  no  longer  the  kingdom 
of  truth.  .  .  .  But  I  desire  to  belong  to  this  kingdom.  ...  I 
learn  from  experience  that  the  people  are  sighing  for  the  voice 
of  their  Shepherd,  Christ,  and  the  youth  are  burning  with  won- 
derful zeal  for  the  sacred  oracles.  A  beginning  is  made  with 
us  in  reading  of  Greek.  We  are  all  giving  ourselves  to  the 
Greek  for  the  better  understanding  of  the  Bible.  We  are  ex- 
pecting a  Hebrew  teacher,  and  the  elector  hath  the  business  in 
hand."  On  seeing  the  first  brief  which  condemned  him,  he 
exclaims:  "  It  is  incredible  that  a  thing  so  monstrous  should 
come  from  the  chief  pontiff,  especially  from  Leo  X.  ...  If, 
in  truth,  it  did  come  forth  from  the  Roman  court,  then  I  will 
show  them  their  most  licentious  temerity  and  their  most  ungodly 
ignorance." 

e.  From  the  Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  held  1545-1563 
to  "  extirpate  Heresies  and  reform  Manners."  (Schaff's 
Creeds.) 

"In  order  to  restrain  petulant  spirits,"  it  decrees  "  that  no 
one,  relying  in  his  own  skill,  shall  in  matters  of  faith  .  .  .  wrest- 
ing the  Sacred  Scriptures  to  his  own  senses,  presume  to  inter- 
pret the  said  Sacred  Scripture  contrary  to  that  sense  which  Holy 
Mother  Church  .  .  .  hath  held  and  doth  hold,  or  even  contrary 


REFORMATION  AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA.  425 

to  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  Fathers."  In  regard  to  jus- 
tification by  faith,  it  declares,  "  If  any  one  saith  that  man  may 
be  justified  before  God  by  his  own  works  .  .  .  without  the  grace 
of  God  through  Jesus  Christ,  let  him  be  anathema.  .  .  . 

"  If  any  one  saith  that,  since  Adam's  sin,  the  free  will  of 
man  is  lost  and  extinguished,  ...  let  him  be  anathema.  .  .  . 

"  If  any  one  saith,  that  by  faith  alone  the  impious  is  justified, 
...  let  him  be  anathema."  Concerning  the  real  presence  of 
Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  it  decides  :  — 

"The  holy  Synod  teaches  .  .  .  that  .  .  .  after  the  consecra- 
tion of  the  bread  and  wine,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  ...  is  truly, 
really,  and  substantially  contained  [within  them]."  The  fol- 
lowing is  its  doctrine  of  penance  :  — 

"  If  any  one  denieth  that  for  the  entire  and  perfect  remission 
of  sins  there  are  required  three  acts  in  the  penitent  ...  to  wit, 
contrition,  confession,  and  satisfaction  ...  or  saith  that  there 
are  two  parts  only  ...  to  wit,  the  terrors  with  which  the  con- 
science is  smitten  upon  being  convinced  of  sin,  and  the  faith 
.  .  .  whereby  one  believes  that  his  sins  are  forgiven  him  through 
Christ,  let  him  be  anathema."  Concerning  sacred  images,  .it 
decrees,  "that  the  images  of  Christ,  of  the  Virgin  Mother  of 
God,  and  of  the  other  saints  are  to  be  ...  retained  .  .  .  and 
that  due  honor  and  veneration  are  to  be  given  them ;  not  that 
any  divinity,  or  virtue  is  believed  to  be  in  them  ...  or  that 
trust  is  to  be  reposed  in  images.  ...  In  the  .  .  .  sacred  use  of 
images,  every  superstition  shall  be  removed,  all  filthy  lucre  be 
abolished.  .  .  .  Let  so  great  care  ...  be  exercised  by  the 
bishops,  as  that  there  be  nothing  seen  that  is  disorderly  .  .  . 
nothing  that  is  profane,  nothing  indecorous."  The  council  thus 
teaches  in  regard  to  indulgences  :  — 

"Whereas,  the  power  of  conferring  indulgences  was  granted 
by  Christ  to  the  Church  .  .  .  the  sacred  holy  Synod  .  .  .  con- 
demns with  anathema  those  who  either  assert  that  they  are 
useless,  or  who  deny  that  there  is  in  the  Church  the  power  of 
granting  them.  In  granting  them,  however,  it  desires  that  .  .  . 
moderation  be  observed.  .  .  .  And  being  desirous  that  the 


426  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL    HISTORY. 

abuses  which  have  crept  therein,  and  by  occasion  of  which  this 
honorable  name  of  indulgences  is  blasphemed  by  heretics,  be 
amended  and  corrected,  it  ordains  ...  by  this  decree,  that  all 
evil  gains  for  the  obtaining  thereof  ...  be  abolished." 

f.    From  the  Augsburg  Confession,  '•'•presented  to  the  Invincible 
Emperor  Charles  V.  Ccesar  Augustus,"  1530.     (Schaff.) 

"...  Inasmuch  as  your  imperial  majesty  has  summoned  a 
convention  of  the  Empire  at  Augsburg,  to  deliberate  in  regard 
to  aid  against  the  Turk,  the  most  .  .  .  ancient  enemy  of  the 
Christian  name  and  religion,  because,  moreover,  of  dissensions 
in  the  matter  of  our  holy  religion  ...  we  now  offer  .  .  .  the 
confession  of  our  preachers  and  ourselves.  .  .  ." 

Of  Justification.  —  "  Men  .  .  .  are  justified  freely  for  Christ's 
sake  through  faith,  when  they  believe  that  they  are  received 
into  favor,  and  their  sins  forgiven." 

Of  the  Real  Presence  in  the  Eucharist.  —  "The  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  are  truly  present,  and  are  communicated  to  those 
that  eat." 

Of  Free  Will.  —  "  Man's  will  .  .  .  hath  no  power  to  work  the 
righteousness  of  God,  or  a  spiritual  righteousness  without  the 
Spirit  of  God." 

******** 

' '  We  beg  that  your  imperial  majesty  would  clemently  hear 
both  what  ought  to  be  changed,  and  what  are  the  reasons  that 
the  people  ought  not  to  be  forced  against  their  consciences  to 
observe  those  abuses." 

Of  the  Marriage  of  Priests.  —  "God  hath  commanded  to 
honor  marriage  ;  the  laws  in  all  well-ordered  commonwealths 
.  .  .  have  adorned  marriage  .  .  .  but  now  men  are  cruelly  put 
to  death  ;  yea,  and  priests  also  for  no  other  cause  but  marriage. 
.  .  .  But  as  no  law  of  man  can  take  away  the  law  of  God,  no 
more  can  any  vow  whatsoever." 

Concerning  Relation  of  Church  and  State.  —  "  Seeing,  then, 
that  the  ecclesiastical  power  concerneth  things  eternal  ...  it 
hindereth  not  the  political  government  any  more  than  the  art 


REFORMATION    AND    RENAISSANCE    ERA.  427 

of  singing  hinders  political  government.  .  .  .  Whe'refore  the 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  powers  are  not  to  be  confounded.  The 
ecclesiastical  power  hath  its  own  commandment  to  preach 
the  Gospel.  .  .  .  Let  it  not  by  force  enter  into  the  office  of 
another ;  let  it  not  transfer  worldly  kingdoms  ...  as  Christ 
saith  "  my  kingdom  is  not  of  the  world." 

g.    TJie  Objects  of  the  Peasants'  Wars  of  the  Reformation. 

The  peasants  of  Alsace-Lorraine  state  their  objects  in  a  pro- 
gram of  which  the  following  are  leading  and  typical  points  • 

(1)  The  Gospel  ought  to  be  preached  according  to  the  truth, 
and  not  according  to  the  interests  of  priests  and  lords.  .  .  . 

(2)  The  interest  on  land  should  be  reduced  to  5  per  cent.  .  .  . 
(4)  All  waters  ought  to  be  free.      (5)  Forests  should  return  to 
the  commune  (village  of  peasants).  .  .  .      (7)  There  should  be 
no  more  serfs.     (8)  We  ourselves  will  choose  our  own  rulers. 
We  will  have  for  our  sovereign  he  who  shall  seem  good  to  us. 
(9)  We  will  be  judged  by  our  peers.  .  .  . 

The  German  leader,  Mu'nzer,  thus  taught,  — 

"  We  are  all  brothers,  and  have  a  common  father,  Adam.  .  .  . 
The  land  is  a  common  heritage.  .  .  .  When  have  we  ever 
yielded  our  rights  in  this  paternal  inheritance  ?  Who  can  show 
us  the  contract  by  which  we  have  given  it  up  ?  " 

"  Never  listen  to  those  men  who  prove  to  you  out  of  the 
Gospel  that  you  are  free,  and  end  by  exhorting  you  to  bow 
your  head  in  slavery." 

"  Curses  on  the  false  priests  who  have  never  understood  the 
essence  of  Christianity  !  " 

STUDY  ON   3,  a-g. 

What  are  the  two  prominent  objects  of  exploration  and  conquest  in 
the  mind  of  Columbus  ?  Name  three  qualities  of  character  displayed 
by  his  letters.  What  motives  for  exploration  are  shown  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  ?  What  national  rivalry  ?  Taking  a  and  b  as  typical,  what 
classes  of  men  will  be  drawn  to  the  new  countries  ?  Judging  from  c, 
what  reformation  is  needed  in  the  Church?  What  is  the  attitude 
of  Luther  toward  the  Church?  Toward  what  he  believes  to  be  the 


428  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

truth?  What  do  these  extracts  show  of  his  character?  What  rea- 
son do  they  show  for  the  attitude  of  the  reformers  toward  Greek 
scholarship?  Compare  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  and  the 
statements  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  What  differences  do  you  find  ? 
What  points  of  the  Confession  most  seriously  affect  the  existing  insti- 
tutions of  Europe?  What  are  evidently  the  objects  of  reformation  in 
the  minds  of  the  peasants?  Why  should  they  naturally  associate 
political  and  social  with  religious  change  ? 

,\.    The  Spanish  Armada.     (Hakluyt's  "Voyages.") 

"The  most  notable  and  great  enterprise  of  all  others  which 
were  in  the  foresaid  yeare  atchieved  .  .  .  was  the  expedition  which 
the  Spanish  king,  having  a  long  time  determined  the  same  in 
his  miude,  and  having  consulted  thereabout  with  the  Pope,  set 
foorth  and  undertooke  against  England  and  the  lowe  Countreys, 
to  the  end  that  he  might  subdue  the  Realme  of  England,  and 
reduce  it  unto  his  Catholique  Religion.  .  .  .  Moreover  the 
Spaniards  were  of  opinion  that  it  would  bee  farre  more  behove- 
full  [fit]  for  their  King  to  conquere  England  and  the  lowe 
Countreys  all  at  once,  than  to  be  constrained  continually  to 
maintaine  a  warlike  Navie  to  defend  his  East  and  West  Indie 
Fleetes,  from  the  English  Drake,  and  from  such  like  valiant 
enemies.  .  .  .  Unto  this  famous  expedition  and  presupposed 
victorie,  many  potentates,  princes,  and  honourable  personages 
hied  themselves  ;  .  .  .  Likewise  the  Pope  ...  as  they  used  to 
do  against  Turkes  and  infidels,  published  a  Cruzado,  with  most 
ample  indulgences.  .  .  .  Some  there  be  which  affirme  that  the 
Pope  had  bestowed  the  realme  of  England  with  the  title  of 
Defender  of  the  Faith,  upon  the  King  of  Spain 2,  giving  him 
charge  to  invade  it  upon  this  condition,  that  hee  should  enjoy 
the  conquered  realm,  as  a  vassal  and  tributarie  ...  to  the  see 
of  Rome.  To  this  purpose,  the  said  Pope  proffered  a  million  of 
gold,  the  one-halfe  thereof  to  be  paied  in  readie  money,  and 
the  other  halfe  when  the  realme  of  England  .  .  .  was  subdued." 
But  the  fleet  having  set  sail,  were  met  in  the  narrow  seas 
by  the  English  under  Howard  and  Drake  and  by  them  defeated ; 
then,  thinking  it  good  "  to  fetch  a  compass  about  Scotland  and 


REFORMATION    AND    RENAISSANCE    ERA.  429 

Ireland,  and  so  to  returne  for  Spaine  .  .  .  were  driven  with 
many  contrary  windes ;  at  length  .  .  .  they  were  cast  by  a 
tempest  .  .  .  upon  divers  parts  of  Ireland,  where  many  of  their 
ships  perished.  ...  Of  134  ships,  which  set  saile  .  .  .  there 
returned  home  53  onely,  small  and  great.  .  .  . 

"  For  the  Deroetuall  memorie  of  this  matter,  the  Zelanders 
caused  newe  coine  of  silver  and  brasse  to  be  stamped,  which  on 
the  one  side  contained  .  .  .  this  inscription :  GLORY  TO  GOD 
ONELY  ;  and  on  the  other  side,  the  pictures  of  certaine  great 
ships  with  these  words  :  THE  SPANISH  FLEET,  and  in  the  cir- 
cumference about  the  ships :  IT  CAME,  IT  WENT,  IT  WAS,  ANNO 
1588.  That  is  to  say,  the  Spanish  fleet  came,  went  and  was 
vanquished  this  yere  ;  for  which  glory  be  given  to  God  onely. 
Also  .  .  .  they  have  stamped  in  Holland  divers  such  like  coines, 
according  to  the  custome  of  the  ancient  Romans. 

"  While  this  wonderfull  and  puissant  Navie  was  sayling  along 
the  English  coastes,  and  all  men  did  now  plainely  see  and 
heare  that  which  before  they  would  not  be  perswaded  of,  all 
people  thorowout  England  prostrated  themselves  with  humble 
prayers  and  supplications  unto  God ;  .  .  .  knowing  right  well, 
that  prayer  was  the  onely  refuge  against  all  enemies,  calamities 
and  necessities,  and  that  it  was  the  onely  solace  and  relief e  for 
mankinde,  oeing  visited  with  affliction  and  misery.  Likewise 
such  solemne  dayes  of  supplication  were  observed'.  tLorowout 
the  united  Provinces.  .  .  . 

"  Likewise,  the  Queenes  Majestic  herselfe,  imitating  the  ancient 
Romans,  rode  into  London  in  triumph,  in  regard  of  her  owne 
and  her  subjects  glorious  deliverance.  For  being  attended 
upon  very  solemnely  by  all  the  principall  estates  and  officers  of 
her  Realnie,  she  was  carried  ...  in  a  tryumphant  chariot,  and 
in  robes  of  triumph,  from  her  Palace  unto  the  Cathedrall.  .  .  . 
And  all  the  Citizens  of  London  in  their  Liveries  stood  on  either 
side  of  the  street,  by  their  severall  Companies  [guilds],  with 
their  ensignes  and  banners,  which  .  .  .  yeelded  a  very  statel}' 
and  gallant  prospect.  Her  Majestic  being  entered  into  the 
Church,  together  with  her  Clergy  and  Nobles  gave  thanks  unto 


430  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

God.  .  .  .  And  with  her  owne  princely  voice  she  most  Chris- 
tianly  exhorted  the  people  to  doe  the  same :  whereupon  the 
people  with  a  loud  acclamation  wished  her  a  most  long  and 
happy  life,  to  the  confusion  of  her  foes." 

i.  "  From  a  joyful  song  of  the  royall  receiving  of  the  Queenes 
most  excellent  majesty  into  her  highnesse  campe  at  Tilbury,1 
in  Essex;  on  Thursday  and  Fryday,  the  8th  and  9th  Aug., 
1588."  (Percy  Society.) 

"  What  princely  wordes  her  grace  declarde, 

What  gracious  thankes  in  even7  worde 
To  every  souldier,  none  she  sparde 
That  served  anywhere  for  England. 
***** 
"  Then  might  she  see  the  hats  to  flye, 
And  everie  souldeir  shouted  hye, 
For  our  good  Queeno  wee'l  fight  or  dye 

On  any  foe  to  England, 
And  many  a  Captain  kist  her  hand 
As  she  passed  forth  through  everie  band 
And  left  her  traine  far  off  to  stand 

From  her  marshall  men  of  England. 
***** 
•'  And  thus  her  highnesse  went  away 
For  whose  long  life  all  England  pray, 
King  Henries  daughter  &  our  stay, 
Elizabeth,  Queene  of  England." 

;.    Concerning  Queen  Elizabeth.      (Lyty's  "  Euphues.") 

"  I  doubt  whether  our  tongue  can  yeelde  wordes  to  blaze  that 
beautie,  the  perfection  whereof  none  can  imagine.  .  .  .  [She 
is]  equal  to  Nicatrata  in  the  Greek  tongue  ;  .  .  .  more  learned 
in  the  Latine  than  Amalasunta ;  passing  Aspasia  in  Philoso- 
phic, who  taught  Pericles ;  exceeding  in  judgement  Themisto- 

1  The  place  of  muster  for  the  forces  called  against  the  Armada. 


REFORMATION   AND    RENAISSANCE   ERA.  431 

cles,  who  instructed  Pythagoras  ;  adde  to  these  qualities,  .  .  . 
the  French  tonge,  the  Spanish,  the  Italian,  not  rneane  in  every 
one,  but  excellent  in  all.  .  .  ." 

';Hir  politique  government,  hir  prudent  counsaile,  hir  zeale 
to  religion,  hir  clemencie  to  those  that  submit,  hir  stoutnesse 
to  those  that  threaten,  so  farre  exceed  all  other  vertues,  that 
they  are  more  easie  to  be  mervailed  at,  than  imitated." 

Je.    Of  the  State  of  England.     (More's  "  Utopia.") 

"The  most  part  of  princes  have  more  delight  in  warlike 
matters  and  feats  of  chivalry  than  in  the  good  feats  of  peace  ; 
and  employ  much  more  study,  how  by  right  or  by  wrong  to 
enlarge  their  dominions,  than  how  well  and  peacefully  to  govern 
that  they  have  already.  .  .  . 

"  There  is  a  great  number  of  gentlemen  which  cannot  be  con- 
tent to  live  idle  themselves,  like  drones,  of  that  which  others 
have  labored  for  —  their  tenants,  I  mean;  whom  they  poll  and 
shave  to  the  quick,  by  raising  their  rents  .  .  .  these  gentlemen. 
I  say,  do  not  only  live  in  idleness  themselves,  but  also  carry  abouf 
with  them  ...  a  great  flock  ...  of  idle  and  loitering  serving- 
men,  which  never  learned  any  craft  whereby  to  get  their  livings. 
...  In  what  parts  of  the  realm  doth  grow  the  finest  and 
therefore  the  dearest  wool,  these  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  yea. 
and  certain  abbots,  holy  men,  no  doubt,  not  contenting  them- 
selves with  the  yearly  .  .  .  profits  that  were  wont  to  grow  to 
their  forefathers,  .  .  .  leave  no  ground  for  tillage  ;  they  enclose 
all  into  pastures  (enclosures)  ;  they  throw  down  houses  ;  they 
pluck  down  towns.  .  .  .  And,  as  though  you  lost  no  small 
quantity  of  ground  by  forests,  chases,  lands  and  parks,  those 
good  holy  men  turn  all  dwelling  places  .  .  .  into  desolation. 
.  .  .  The  husbandmen  be  thrust  out  of  their  own,  ...  or  by 
wrongs  and  injuries  they  be  so  wearied  that  they  be  compelled 
to  sell.  all.  .  .  .  Away  they  trudge,  I  say,  out  of  their  known 
and  accustomed  houses,  finding  no  place  to  rest  in.  ...  And 
.  .  .  what  can  they  do  but  steal  and  then  justly  ...  be  hanged, 
or  else  go  about  a  begging  ;  .  .  .  whom  no  man  will  set  at  work, 


432  STUDIES  iisr  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

though  they  never  so  willingly  proffer  themselves  thereto.  For 
one  shepherd  ...  is  enough  to  eat  up  that  ground  with  cattle, 
to  the  occupying  whereof  about  husbandry  many  hands  were 
requisite.  .  .  .  For  after  that  so  much  ground  was  inclosed 
for  pasture,  an  infinite  number  of  sheep  died  of  the  rot ;  such 
vengeance  God  took  of  their  inordinate  .  .  .  covetousness  ! 
.  .  .  And  though  the  number  of  sheep  increase  never  so 
fast,  yet  the  price  falleth  not  one  mite,  because  there  be  so  few 
sellers  ;  for  they  be  almost  all  come  into  a  few  rich  men's  hands, 
whom  no  need  forceth  to  sell  .  .  .  before  they  may  sell  as  dear 
as  they  lust." 

I.    Concerning  the  Puritans.  (From  a  letter  of  Queen  Elizabeth 

to  James  VI.  of  Scotland.) 

"  Let  me  warn  you  that  there  is  risen,  both  in  your  realm  and 
mine,  a  sect  of  perilous  consequence,  such  as  would  have  no 
kings  but  a  presbytery.  .  .  .  When  they  have  made  in  our  peo- 
ples' hearts  a  doubt  of  our  religion,  .  .  .  what  perilous  issue 
this  may  make  I  rather  think  than  mind  to  write.  ...  I  pray 
you  stop  the  mouths  or  make  shorter  the  tongues  of  such  minis- 
ters as  dare  presume  to  make  prayers  in  their  pulpits  for  the 
persecuted  in  England  for  the  Gospel." 

m.     The  Personal  Expenses  of  James  I.  and  the   "Remon- 
strance against  Impositions." 

In  a  single  year  (1610)  it  was  estimated  that  the  queen's  per- 
sonal expenditure  amounted  to  $70,000,  and  that  of  the  princes 
and  princesses  was  nearly  the  same. — Extra  wines,  $8400.  — 
Plate  and  jewels,  above  $120,000.  — To  the  royal  cofferer,  over 
$500,000;  to  the  keeper  of  the  privy  purse,  $20,000. — From 
1603-1610,  James  gave  away  presents  worth  about  $250,000  a 
year. — No  less  than  $460,000  were  spent  on  jewels  alone  in 
the  first  four  years  of  his  reign.  — The  receipts  meanwhile  were 
about  $1,200,000,  raised  by  new  taxes  to  $2,300,000.  Since 
this  proved  insufficient,  parliament  was  called  together.  Among 
the  speeches  made  after  the  king  had  asked  for  new  grants, 


REFORMATION   AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA.  433 

was  that  of  the  member  for  Oxford,  who  asked:  "To  what 
purpose  is  it  to  draw  a  silver  stream  out  of  the  country  into  the 
royal  cistern,  if  it  shall  daily  run  out  thence  by  private  cocks? 
.  .  .  And  for  his  part,  he  said,  he  would  never  give  his  con- 
sent to  take  money  from  a  poor  frieze  jerkin  to  trap  a  courtier's 
horse  withal.  And  therefore  he  wished  that  we  might  join  in 
humble  petition  to  his  majesty  that  he  would  diminish  his 
charge  and  live  of  his  own,1  without  exacting  of  his  poor 
subjects." 

The  Commons  being  unwilling  to  proceed  to  grant  any 
money  without  knowing  what  the  king  would  give  in  return, 
the  king  sent  back  word  by  the  treasurer  to  parliament  "that 
for  his  kingdom  he  was  beholden  to  no  elective  power,  neither 
did  he  depend  on  any  popular  applause.  .  .  .  But,  withal,  be 
did  acknowledge  that  he  had  no  power  to  make  laws  of  himself, 
or  to  exact  any  subsidies  .  .  .  without  the  consent  of  his  three 
estates.  ..."  The  king  afterward  promised  not  to  use  the 
money  for  the  benefit  of  any  private  person,  nor  to  impose  any 
taxes  but  in  parliament,  where  he  will  propose  measures  for 
debate.  Discussion  followed,  ending  in  the  presentation  of  the 
following  "  Remonstrance"  :  — 

' '  Most  gracious  sovereign  ;  whereas  we  your  Majesty's  hum- 
ble subjects  .  .  .  have  received  ...  a  commandment  of  restraint 
from  debating  in  Parliament  your  Majesty's  power  to  impose 
[taxes]  upon  your  subjects  .  .  .  yet  allowing  us  to  examine  the 
grievance  of  these  impositions  .  .  .  we,  your  Majesty's  loving 
subjects,  .  .  .  are  bold  to  make  this  remonstrance.  .  .  . 

"  First,  we  hold  it  an  ancient,  general,  and  undoubted  right 
of  parliament  to  discuss  all  things  properly  concerning  the 
subjects.  .  .  . 

"  And  therefore  for  that  we  cannot  proceed  further  without 
concluding  forever  the  right  of  the  subject,  which  without  due 
examination  we  cannot  do,  we  humbly  desire  your  Majesty  that 
we  be  set  at  liberty  to  proceed  in  our  debates  ..." 

1  To  "  live  of  his  own,"  that  is,  from  the  income  of  the  royal  estates 
and  the  customary  feudal  dues. 


434  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

This  petition  the  king  promised  to  grant  if  the  Commons 
would  "not  impugn  his  prerogative,  would  seek  his  content 
and  satisfaction,  and  endeavor  to  unite  and  confirm  his  sub- 
jects' hearts  unto  him." 

The  House  then  entered  into  debate  concerning  Papists,  the 
taxes,  and  the  king's  support.  In  the  debate  concerning  the 
latter,  it  was  argued  that  "  this  matter  of  support  was  a  thing 
strange,  and  never  heard  of  in  Parliament  but  once  "  ;  since  no 
agreement  could  be  reached  concerning  it,  the  king  waived  the 
matter,  if  only  present  aid  might  be  given. 

n.  The  Civil  Wars  of  England.  (From  Hobbes'  "  Levia- 
than," or  an  "  Epitome  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  England," 
written  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue.) 

11  A.  In  the  year  1640,  the  government  of  England  was 
monarchical ;  and  the  King  that  reigned,  Charles,  the  first  of 
that  name,  held  the  sovereignty  by  right  of  a  descent  con- 
tinued above  six  hundred  years  .  .  . ;  a  man  that  wanted  no 
virtue,  either  of  body  or  mind,  nor  endeavored  anything  more 
than  to  discharge  his  duty  towards  God,  in  the  well-governing 
of  his  subjects. 

B.  How  could  he  then  miscarry,  having  ...  so  many 
trained  soldiers?  .  .  . 

A.  If  those  soldiers  had  been,  as  they  and  all  other  subjects 
ought  to  have  been,  at  his  Majesty's  command,  the  peace  and 
happiness  of  the  three  kingdoms  had  continued.  .  .  .     But  the 
people    were    corrupted    generally,    and    disobedient    persons 
esteemed  the  best  patriots. 

B.  But   sure  there  were  men  enough,   besides  those  that 
were  ill-affected,  to  have  made  an  army.  .  .  . 

A.  Truly,  I  think,  if  the  King  had  had  money,  he  might 
have   had   soldiers   enough   in  England.  .  .  .     But  the  King's 
treasury  was  very  low,   and  his   enemies,  that  pretended  the 
people's    ease    from    taxes,  .  .  .  had    the    command    of     the 
purses.  .  .  . 

B.  But  how  came  the  people  to  be  so  corrupted  ?  .  .  . 


REFORMATION   AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA.  436 

^1.  Their  seducers  were  of  divers  sorts.  One  sort  were 
ministers  ;  ministers,  as  they  called  themselves,  of  Christ,  .  .  . 
pretending  to  have  a  right  from  God  to  govern  every  one  his 
parish,  and  their  assembly  the  whole  nation.  Secondly,  there 
were  a  very  great  number  .  .  .  which  .  .  .  did  still  retain  a  belief 
that  they  ought  to  be  governed  by  the  Pope  ...  in  the  right  of 
Christ.  .  .  .  And  these  were  known  by  the  name  of  Papists  ; 
as  the  ministers  .  .  .  were  commonly  called  Presbyterians. 
Thirdly,  there  were  not  a  few  who  .  .  .  declared  themselves  for 
a  liberty  in  religion.  .  .  .  Some  of  them,  because  they  would 
have  all  congregations  free  and  independent,  .  .  .  were  called 
Independents  [Congregationalists]  .  .  .  besides  divers  other 
sects.  .  .  .  And  these  were  the  enemies  which  rose  against  his 
Majesty  from  the  private  interpretation-  of  the  Scripture,  ex- 
posed to  every  man's  scanning  m  his  mother  tongue.  Fourthly, 
there  were  an  exceeding  great  number  of  men  of  the  better 
sort,  that  had  been  so  educated,  as  that  in  their  }-outh  having 
read  the  books  written  by  famous  men  of  the  ancient  Greek 
and  Roman  commonwealths  ...  in  which  books  the  popular 
government  was  extolled  by  that  glorious  name  of  liberty,  and 
monarchy  disgraced  by  the  name  of  tyranny ;  they  became 
therebv  in  love  with  their  forms  of  government.  And  out  of 
these  men  were  chosen  the  greatest  part  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. .  .  .  Lastly,  the  people  in  general  were  so  ignorant  of 
their  duty  as  that  not  one  perhaps  of  ten  thousand  knew  what 
right  any  man  had  to  command  him,  or  what  necessitv  there 
was  of  King  or  Commonwealth  for  which  he  was  to  part  with 
his  money  against  his  will ;  but  thought  .  .  .  that  it  could  not 
be  taken  from  him  upon  any  pretence  of  common  safety  without 
his  own  consent.  .  .  ." 

"For  after  the  Bible  was  translated  into  English,  every 
man,  nay,  every  boy  and  wench  that  could  read  English, 
thought  they  spoke  with  God  Almighty,  and  understood  what 
he  said.  .  .  .  The  reverence  and  obedience  due  to  the  Reformed 
Church  .  .  .  was  cast  off,  and  every  man  became  a  judge  of 
religion  and  an  interpreter  of  the  Scriptures  to  himself.  .  .  . 


436  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

' '  There  is  no  nation  in  the  world  whose  religion  is  not  estab- 
lished and  receives  not  its  authority  from  the  laws  of  that 
nation.  .  .  .  Because  men  can  never  by  their  own  wisdom 
come  to  the  knowledge  of  what  God  hath  spoken  and  com- 
manded to  be  observed,  .  .  .  they  are  to  acquiesce  in  some 
human  authority  or  other.  ..." 

0.  Tlie  Scots'  Solemn  League   and    Covenant,   1643.      (Han- 

sard's Parliamentary  Debates.) 

"We  noblemen,  barons,  knights,  gentlemen,  citizens,  bur- 
gesses, ministers  of  the  gospel  and  commons  of  all  sorts,  .  .  . 
have  now  at  last  .  .  .  resolved  and  determined  to  enter  into  a 
mutual  and  solemn  League  and  Covenant ;  wherein  we  all  ... 
with  our  hands  lifted  up  to  the  most  high  God,  do  swear,  — 

1.  That  we  shall  sincerely,  really  and  constantly,  through  the 
grace"  of  God,   endeavour,  in  our  several  places  and  callings, 
the  preservation  of    the  reformed   religion   of   the    church   of 
Scotland,  .  .  .  and  we  shall  endeavour  to  bring  the  churches  of 
God,  in  the  three  kingdoms,  to  the  nearest  .  .  .  uniformity  in 
religion,  confession  of  faith,  .  .  .  church  government,  directory 
for  worship   and  catechizing;   that  we  .  .  .  may,  as  brethren, 
live  in  faith  and  love,  and  the  Lord  may  delight  to  dwell  in  the 
midst  of  us.     2.    That  we  shall  in  like  manner,  without  respect 
of  persons,  endeavour  the  extirpation  of  popery,  prelacy  (that 
is,  church  government  by  archbishops,  bishops  .  .  .),  supersti- 
tion,  heresy,  schism,    profaneness,    and   whatsoever   shall   be 
found  contrary  to  sound  doctrine  .  .  .   ;  that  the  Lord  may  be 
one  and  his  name  one  in  the  three  kingdoms.     3.    We  shall, 
with  the  same  sincerity,  reality,  and  constancy,  in  our  several 
vocations,  endeavour  ...  to  preserve  the  rights  and  privileges 
of  the  parliaments  and  the  liberties  of  the  kingdoms  ;  and  to 
preserve  and  defend  the  king's  .  .  .  person  and   authority,  in 
the  preservation  and  defence  of  the  true  religion  and  liberties 
of  the  kingdoms.  ...     6.    We  shall  also  ...  in  this  common 
cause  of  religion,  liberty  and  peace  of  the  kingdoms,  assist  and 
defend  all  those  that  enter  into  this  League  and  Covenant,  in 


REFORMATION   AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA.  437 

the  maintaining  and  pursuing  thereof  ;  and  shall  not  suffer  our- 
selves ...  to  make  defection  to  the  contrary  part,  or  to  give 
ourselves  to  a  detestable  .  .  .  neutrality  in  this  cause  which  so 
much  concerneth  the  glory  of  God.  .  .  .  And  this  Covenant 
we  make  in  the  presence  of  Almighty  God,  the  Searcher  of-  all 
hearts,  with  a  true  intention  to  perform  the  same,  as  we  shall 
answer  at  that  great  day  when  the  secrets  of  all  hearts  shall  be 
disclosed.  ..." 


p.    The  King's  Power.     (From  Cowell's  "  Interpreter,"  a  law 
dictionary  of  the  time  of  James  I.) 

"The  King  is  above  the  law  by  his  absolute  power.  .  .  For 
otherwise  were  he  subject  after  a  sort,  and  subordinaire,  which 
may  not  bee  thought  without  breach  of  duty  and  loyaltie.  .  .  . 
And  though  at  his  coronation  he  take  an  oath  not  to  alter 
the  lawes  of  the  land ;  yet  this  oath  notwithstanding,  hee 
may  alter  or  suspend  any  particular  lawe  that  seemeth  hurt- 
full  to  the  publike  estate.  .  .  .  Thus  much  in  short,  because 
I  have  heard  some  to  be  of  opinion  that  the  lawes  be  above  the 
King.  .  .  .  But  I  hold  .  .  .  that  the  King  of  England  is  an 
absolute  King." 

STUDY  ON  3,  h-p. 

What  two  motives  for  the  sending  out  of  the  Armada?  What  did 
the  English  and  the  Dutch  regard  as  their  strongest  defence  against 
this  fleet?  What  historical  influence  is  incidentally  seen  to  be  felt  in 
England?  What  feeling  displayed  in  i  and  jl  What  causes  for  that 
feeling  are  indicated  in  each  of  these  extracts?  What  wrong  or 
oppression  is  shown  by  both  k  and  g?  What  class  is  wronged  by  the 
"inclosures"  and  how?  How  does  this  wrong  become  an  injury  to 
the  State?  What  injury  arises  from  the  massing  of  pasture  and  sheep 
in  the  hands  of  the,  few  ?  Who  are  injured  ?  What  does  the  letter  of 
Elizabeth  illustrate  ? 

What  injustice  to  the  State  is  seen  in  the  expenses  of  James  I.? 
How  is  this  illustrated  in  the  member  for  Oxford's  speech?  What 
does  the  "Remonstrance"  and  the  accompanying  discussion  show  to 


438  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

be  the  point  at  issue  between  the  king  and  parliament?  Why  does 
the  matter  of  the  king's  support  seem  strange  to  parliament  ?  What 
difference  between  the  feudal  and  modern  theory  of  a  king's 
support  ? 

Describe  the  causes  of  the  civil  wars  in  England  from  a  Royalist's 
point  of  view.  From  a  Covenanter's.  What  objection  to  the  general 
reading  of  the  Scriptures  is  urged  by  Hobbes  ?  What  justification 
for  the  union  of  Church  and  State  ?  What  intolerance  do  you  discover 
in  the  "  Solemn  League  and  Covenant "  ?  What  different  view  of  the 
king's  power  taken  by  Cowell  and  the  Covenant  ? 


E.   MODEKff  EUKOPE,   1648-1880. 
PERIODS  OF  HISTORY. 

I.  The  "  Old  Regime,"  1  1648-1789.     Peace  of  Westphalia  to  the 
French  Revolution. 

Aa.  In  Europe  in  general 
Ab.  In  France. 

II.  French  Revolution  and  wars  of  Napoleon,  1789-1815. 
III.  Nineteenth  Century,  1815-1880. 

I.    THE   "OLD   REGIME." 

"Infinite  Providence,  thou  wilt  make  the  day  dawn. — 

"'But  still  struggles  the  twelfth  hour  of  the  night ;  nocturnal  birds  of 

prey  shoot  through  the  darkness  ;    spectres  rattle ;  the  dead  play  their 

antics;  the  living  dream."  —  RICHTER. 

Aa.  General  Study  on  the  '•  Old  Regime"  in  Europe, 
age  of  Lewis  XIV.,  Frederick  the  Great,  Anne  and 
the  Georges,  Maria  Theresa,  Peter  the  Great. 

Chief  original  sources  of  its  history:  State  documents, 
consisting  of  government  records,  of  treaties,  diplomatic 
correspondence,  and  laws ;  contemporary  letters  and  jour- 
nals (notably  of  St.  Simon  and  Pepys)  ;  pamphlets 
and  newspapers  ;  contemporary  art  and  literature  ;  the 


1  This  general  phrase  can  hardly  be  applied  to  England  after  1688. 


MODERN   EUROPE.  439 

"Annual  Register,"  published  yearly  since  1758,  and  con- 
taining a  record  of  the  events  and  a  retrospect  of  the 
literature,  science,  and  art  of  each  year. 

Chief  historians:  Same  as  for  D\  also  Schlosser's  His- 
tory of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  and  Lecky's  History  of 
Rationalism  in  Europe,  and  his  History  of  England. 

1.   Chronological  Summary  of  Leading  Events. 

a.    International. 

Continued  war  between  France  and  Spain  over 
boundaries.  This  war  ends  by  the  Peace  of  the 
Pyrenees,  which  gives  France  new  territory  to- 
ward Spain  and  the  Spanish  Netherlands ;  at  the  same 
time  a  marriage  is  arranged  between  Lewis  XIV.  and  a 
Spanish  princess,  the  former  giving  a  solemn  promise  to 
claim  no  rights  to  Spanish  lands  by  reason  of  this  union, 
in  consideration  of  a  large  sum  of  money  to  be  paid  by 
Spain. 

Naval  war  between  England  and  Holland,  caused  by 
mutual  irritation  over  colonial  and  commercial  relations, 
and  finally  precipitated  by  the  passage  of  the  "  Navigation 
Act "  by  the  English  parliament.  By  this  act  no  goods 
are  to  be  brought  from  Asia,  Africa,  or  America  into  Eng- 
land save  in  English  ships.  The  war  ends  by  a  treaty  in 
which  the  Dutch  agree  to  salute  the  English  flag  when 
they  meet  it  on  the  high  seas,  and  to  repair  injuries  done 
to  English  commerce  in  the  East  Indies  and  elsewhere.  — 
Commercial  treaties  advantageous  to  England,  made  be- 
tween her  and  Denmark,  Portugal,  and  Sweden ;  Portugal 
grants  the  English  the  exclusive  right  of  commerce  with 
herself  and  her  colonies.  —  One  English  fleet  dispatched 
by  the  government  (Cromwell's)  seizes  Jamaica  from 
Spain,  while  another  is  sent  out  to  annoy  the  Spanish 
galleons.  War  with  Spain,  in  which  the  English  join 


440  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

forces  with  the  French,  and  which  is  ended  by  the  Peace 
of  the  Pyrenees. 

War  of  Sweden  against  Poland,  because  the  king  of 
the  latter  country  claims  a  right  to  the  Swedish  crown  ; 
Russia,  Denmark,  Germany,  and  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg join  Poland.  The  war  ends  with  the  Peace  of  Oliva 
and  two  other  treaties,  by  which  it  is  agreed  that  the 
Polish  king  shall  renounce  all  claims  to  the  Swedish 
throne,  and  acknowledge  Brandenburg  as  the  independent 
ruler  of  Prussia,  while  Denmark  gives  up  all  claims  to 
possessions  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula. 

On  pretexts  arising  from  his  Spanish  marriage, 
Lewis  XIV.  invades  and  conquers  parts  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands  and  of  the  Spanish  county 
of  Burgundy  (Franche-ComtS*).  England,  Holland,  and 
Sweden  form  a  Triple  Alliance  against  him,  and  he  signs  a 
temporary  peace.  He  then  buys  off  the  king  of  England 
(Charles  II.)  from  this  alliance  by  promising  an  annual 
payment  of  $1,000,000  in  return  for  English  aid  in  his 
wars  with  Spain  aftd  Holland;  he  also  buys  the  aid  of 
Cologne  and  Minister,  and  concludes  a  private  treaty  with 
Sweden.  Thus  prepared,  he  attacks  Holland;  the  latter 
is  aided  by  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  the  emperor,  and 
Spain.  This  war  ends  with  the  Peace  of  Nimwegen,  by 
which  Holland  promises  neutrality,  Brandenburg  gains 
confirmation  of  possession  of  lands  near  the  Rhine,  Lewis 
XIV.  gains  Franche-Comte'  and  important  parts  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands  (1678-1679).  Lewis  establishes 
"  Chambers  of  Reunion,"  or  special  French  courts,  to 
decide  just  what  towns  and  cities  belong  to  him  according 
to  treaty ;  whatever  is  adjudged  his,  he  occupies  with  his 
troops,  and  thus  gradually  wins  the  larger  part  of  Elsass 
(Alsace)  ;  he  treacherously  seizes  Strasburg,  invades  the 
remainder  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  occupies  Lorraine. 


MODERN   EUROPE  441 

The  emperor  protests,  and  makes  a  truce  with  Lewis,  by 
which,  however,  the  latter  retains  his  "Reunions"  and 
Strasburg  as  well. 

While  France  thus  crowds  back  the  boundaries  of  the 
Empire  from  the  west,  the  Turks  attack  her  on  the  Hun- 
garian side,  take  Belgrade,  and  besiege  Vienna  itself 
(1683),  whence  they  are  turned  back  by  Sobieski,  king  of 
Poland,  and  Charles,  duke  of  Lorraine ;  they  are  driven 
further  and  further  southward,  and  the  crown  of  Hungary 
becomes  hereditary  in  the  House  of  Austria. 

Charles  II.  of  England,  desirous  of  gaining  supplies 
from  parliament,  and  supported  by  the  English  merchants, 
who  are  jealous  of  the  Dutch  commercial  power,  sends 
out  a  fleet  to  attack  and  annoy  the  Dutch  colonial  pos- 
sessions ;  New  Amsterdam  is  seized  by  the  English  and 
named  New  York;  new  war  with  Holland  follows,  ended 
by  the  Treaty  of  Breda,  which  confirms  New  York  to  Eng- 
land and  Surinam  to  Holland. 

Lewis  XIV.  claims  new  lands  toward  the  Rhine  (Pa- 
latinate) on  the  pretext  of  inheritance,  and  at  once  begins 
to  occupy  and  devastate  them  by  force  of  arms.  The 
emperor,  the  kings  of  Sweden  and  Spain,  several  German 
princes,  England  and  Holland,  form  the  "Grand  Alliance" 
against  him ;  war  is  waged  in  Europe  and  the  European 
colonies,  ending  by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick,  which  leaves 
things  much  as  before ;  Lewis  is  compelled  to  make  some 
restorations  to  Spain  and  a  few  to  the  emperor,  but  is 
allowed  to  keep  Elsass  and  Strasburg. 

War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  —  The  king  of 
Spain,  having  willed  his  dominions  to  the  grand- 
son of  Lewis  XIV.,  who  accepts  the  crown  in  his 
behalf,  the  second  Grand  Alliance  is  formed  by  England, 
Holland,  and  the  emperor,  with  the  avowed  objects  of 
conquering  the  Spanish  Netherlands  as  a  protection  for 


442  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Holland,  of  conquering  Italy  away  from  Spain,  of  hinder- 
ing France  from  gaining  the  Spanish  Indies,  and  of  gain- 
ing favorable  commercial  terms  for  England  and  Holland 
in  the  Spanish  trade ;  above  all,  the  union  of  France  and 
Spain  under  the  same  crown  is  to  be  prevented.  The 
Alliance  declares  war  against  Lewis,  and  prosecutes  it  in 
Italy,  along  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  in  Spain  and  the 
Spanish  possessions ;  its  most  distinguished  generals  are, 
for  the  imperial  forces,  Prince  Eugene,  a  noble  Savoyard, 
and  for  the  British,  Marlborough.  The  war  is  closed  in 
1713  and  1714  by  the  treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Rastadt. 
These  treaties  provide  as  follows :  That  France  shall  aban- 
don the  claims  of  the  Stuarts  to  the  English  throne,  cede 
to  Great  Britain  Acadia  (Nova  Scotia),  Hudson's  Bay,  and 
Newfoundland,  and  make  such  arrangements  for  the  suc- 
cession in  France  as  shall  prevent  any  possible  union  of 
French  and  Spanish  crowns ;  that  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg shall  be  recognized  by  the  title  of  King  of  Prussia, 
and  that  France  shall  cede  to  him  certain  territories  in 
the  Spanish  Netherlands,  on  condition  of  the  Catholic 
religion  being  still  upheld ;  that  the  duke  of  Savoy  shall 
gain  new  Italian  territories  and  become  the  king  of  Sicily ; l 
that  France  shall  surrender  all  those  parts  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  still  held  by  her,  and  not  otherwise  disposed 
of,  to  Austria ;  that  Spain  shall  give  Minorca  and  Gibraltar 
to  England,  on  condition  of  neither  Jews  nor  Moors  being 
allowed  therein ;  that  the  trade  in  African  slaves  shall  be 
given  to  an  English  company  for  thirty  years ;  that  all 
places  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  shall  belong  to  the 
empire;  that  the  archduke  of  Austria  (emperor)  shall 
retain  all  the  parts  of  Italy  which  he  occupies,  namely, 
Sardinia,  the  duchy  of  Milan,  and  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

1  In  1720  Sicily  was  exchanged  for  Sardinia;  thus  the  duke  of  Savoy 
became  the  king  of  Sardinia. 


MODERN   EUROPE.  443 

At  the  same  time  commercial  treaties  are  concluded  be- 
tween Prance  and  Great  Britain,  and  between  France  and 
Holland. 

Meanwhile  war  between  Russia,  Poland,  Denmark,  and 
Sweden,  each  country  desirous  of  gaining  firmer  foothold 
on  the  Baltic  lands  with  their  important  harbors.  The 
war  ends  with  treaties  (1719-1721)  which  give  Russia  the 
Baltic  lands  about  St.  Petersburg,  and  give  the  kingxof 
Prussia,  who  had  entered  the  war  as  a  "  free  lance,"  added 
territories  in  Northern  Germany. 

Prince  Eugene  fights  against  the  Turk  in  Hun- 
gary, and  Belgrade  is  won  again  for  the  emperor. 
—  Spain,  dissatisfied  with  the  Peace  of  Utrecht, 
conquers  Sardinia  wholly  and  Sicily  partially,  whereupon 
England,  France,  Holland,  and  the  emperor  form  the 
Quadruple  Alliance  against  her,  force  her  to  retreat,  and 
renounce  Sicily  and  Sardinia  forever;  the  emperor  and 
the  duke  of  Savoy  exchange  the  two  islands,  and  thus 
the  two  Sicilies  are  again  united,  and  the  duke  of  Savoy 
becomes  the  king  of  Sardinia  (1720). —  War  of  the  Polish 
Succession,  caused  by  a  quarrel  over  the  election  to  the 
Polish  throne ;  the  emperor  and  Russia  support  one  can- 
didate, the  kings  of  France,  Sardinia,  and  Spain  the  other; 
war  ending  in  a  treaty  by  which  Sardinia  gains  a  part  of 
the  Milanese  lands,  Spain  gains  the  two  Sicilies  for  a 
younger  branch  of  its  ruling  house  (Bourbon),  Lorraine 
is  to  pass  to  France,  and  its  duke,  son-in-law  of  the  em- 
peror (archduke  of  Austria),  is  granted  the  rule  over 
Tuscany.  —  The  Turks  once  more  win  Belgrade. 

Wars  of  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  —  The  two 
first   of    these    wars  ..are   parts    of    the    general 
European  war   of   the    "  Austrian    Succession." 
This  succession,  in  1740,  falls  to  Maria  Theresa,  daughter 
of  the  preceding  emperor,  who  had  made  her  his  heir  by 


444  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTOKY. 

the  "  Pragmatic  Sanction  " ;  since  many  of  the  princes  of 
Europe  entirely  disapprove  of  this  disposal  of  the  Austrian 
inheritance,  several  of  them  combine  to  dispute  it  in  behalf 
of  rival  claims,  and  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  is 
opened  by  the  king  of  Spain  and  some  of  the  German 
princes,  first  among  them  being  Frederick  the  Gf-reat,  king 
of  Prussia.  On  the  grounds  of  some  half -forgotten  and 
remote  claims  of  inheritance,  this  king  claims  and  seizes  by 
force  of  arms  the  duchy  of  Silesia.  In  return  for  it,  he 
promises  Maria  Theresa  his  alliance  in  war,  his  vote  among 
the  electors  for  her  husband  as  emperor,  and  $2,000,000. 
Maria  Theresa  rejects  the  bargain ,  the  war  now  opens  be- 
tween Prussia,  allied  with  France,  Spain,  Bavaria,  Sardinia, 
and  Saxony  on  the  one  side,  and  Austria,  supported  by 
Great  Britain  and  Holland,  on  the  other ;  it  closes  (1748)  by 
the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  which  confirms  the  "  Prag- 
matic Sanction,"  but  gives  Silesia  to  Frederick. 

The  "  Seven  Years'  War "  is  the  third  of  these  wars 
of  Frederick.  Austria,  dissatisfied  with  the  loss  of  Sile- 
sia, forms  secret  alliances  and  plans  against  Frederick. 
The  latter,  knowing  these  schemes,  suddenly  invades 
Saxony,  seizes  Dresden,  and  precipitates  war.  Russia, 
Saxony,  Sweden,  and  France  fight  with  Austria  against 
Frederick,  who  is  supported  by  England  and  later  by  Peter 
the  Third,  who  brings  Russia  to  his  aid  .on  account  of  his 
personal  admiration  of  the  Prussian  king.  The  war  ends 
by  a  treaty  which  confirms  Silesia  to  Frederick,  while  the 
latter  promises  to  give  his  vote  for  emperor  to  Maria 
Theresa's  son. 

Both  of  these  wars  are  waged,  on  the  part  of  England 
and  France,  in  their  colonial  possessions  as  well  as  in 
Europe,  causing,  among  other  conflicts,  the  so-called 
u  King  George's  War  "  and  "  The  Old  French  and  Indian 
War."  These  colonial  wars  end  in  the  Peace  of  Paris,  by 


MODERN   EUROPE.  445 

which  France  cedes  to  England  Nova  Scotia  and  Canada, 
while  a  line  drawn  from  the  source  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  is  to  make  the  boundary  between  British  and 
French  possessions  on  this  continent;  she  also  grants 
certain  lands  in  Africa,  in  the  West  and  East  Indies,  and 
promises  to  keep  no  troops  in  Bengal.  Great  Britain  re- 
stores certain  West  Indian  territory  to  France ;  Spain 
gives  England  Florida  and  other  Spanish  colonies  east 
of  the  Mississippi,  the  right  of  the  Newfoundland  fish- 
eries, and  the  privilege  of  cutting  logwood  in  the  bay 
of  Honduras.  France  agrees  to  give  Spain  Louisiana, 
including  New  Orleans. 

Wars  of  Catherine  the  Second  of  .Russia;  the 
formation  of  the  United  /States.  Catherine  the 
Second  of  Russia  and  Frederick  the  Great  of 
Prussia  interfere  in  Polish  affairs,  dictating  in  regard  to 
the  internal  government  of  the  country;  the  Poles  revolt, 
and  war  ensues  in  which  Russia  decidedly  gains  the 
upper-hand.  Prussia  and  Austria,  fearing  the  advance 
of  Russian  power  through  Poland,  make  an  agreement 
to  divide  Poland  between  themselves  and  Catherine.  This 
agreement,  carried  out  by  force  of  arms,  is  known  as  the 
First  Partition  of  Poland  (1772). — War  of  Russia  and 
Turkey,  ending  in  the  advance  of  Russia  into  the  Crimea, 
and  in  general  towards  the  Black  Sea,  in  her  assuming 
the  position  of  protector  of  certain  Christian  peoples 
under  Turkish  rule,  and  in  her  obtaining  free  commercial 
navigation  in  Turkish  waters.  —  A  plan  of  armed  neu- 
trality at  sea  during  time  of  war  proposed  by  Russia 
(1780),  and  soon  supported  by  other  powers  of  Europe ; 
this  plan  demands  the  unmolested  passage  of  neutral 
ships,  and  declares  that  blockades  must  be  enforced  by 
armed  ships  in  order  to  be  recognized. 

Revolt  of  American  colonies  against  England,  followed 


446  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

by  the  "  War  of  Independence,"  in  which  they  are  joined 
by  France,  Spain,  and  Holland ;  the  war  ends  in  treaties 
signed  at  Paris  and  Versailles,  which  recognize  the  United 
States  of  America  as  an  independent  power ;  which  give 
them  the  right  to  the  Newfoundland  fisheries ;  and  which 
leave  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  open  both  to  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain. 

STUDY  ON  I  «. 

Of  what  nature  are  these  international  relations  ?  What  three  groups 
of  countries  do  you  distinguish  in  these  relations  ?  What  historical 
and  what  geographical  reasons  can  you  give  for  these  groups  ?  What, 
in  general,  are  the  objects  and  causes  of  the  wars  of  this  period? 
Compare  these  objects  and  causes  with  those  of  the  wars  from  1492 
to  1648.  In  whose  interests  are  these  wars  waged?  Who  suffer  from 
them  ?  How  do  they  suffer  ?  In  whose  hands  is  the  disposal  of  Euro- 
pean territory  ?  What  relation  between  the  feudal  organization  and 
the  object  of  a  war  like  that  of  the  Austrian  or  Spanish  succession  ? 
What  part  of  the  feudal  organization  has  overshadowed  all  the  others? 
Prove  it.  In  what  countries?  In  private  life  how  would  you  charac- 
terize the  actions  of  men  like  Lewis  XIV.  (the  Great),  Charles  II.  of 
England,  and  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  (the  Great)  ?  What  similarity  in 
the  royal  titles  of  the  kings  of  Prussia,  Hungary,  and  Sardinia?  What 
country  is  evidently  the  strongest  in  Europe  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession?  Prove  it.  Why  should  so  many  princes  have  combined 
against  Maria  Theresa?  What  country  grows  most  rapidly  in  Euro- 
pean power  during  the  period?  Prove  it.  What  country  is  the 
weakest  in  Europe  during  the  whole  period?  Prove  it.  What 
country  greatly  decreases  in  power  during  this  time?  Prove  it. 
What  is  your  judgment  of  the  strength  of  the  empire?  What  is  the 
first  great  commercial  and  naval  power  of  Europe  in  this  age  ?  The 
second?  Sustain  your  judgment  by  facts.  What  relation  between 
the  geographical  situation  of  Brandenburg,  Savoy,  and  Austria,  and 
their  importance  in  European  wars?  What  is  the  importance  of 
Gibraltar  to  England?  During  this  age  this  phrase  arose:  "The 
Balance  of  Power  "  ;  explain  it  in  such  a  connection  as  this  :  To  pre- 
serve the  balance  of  power,  the  kings  of  Europe  formed  alliances 
against  Lewis  XIV. 


MODERN   EUROPE.  447 

b.   Internal  Affairs  of  England. 

The  COMMONWEALTH,  or  the  English  Republic. 
The  title  and  office  of  king  and  of  the  House  of 
Lords  is  abolished  by  the  army  under  the  lead  of 
Cromwell ;  the  "  Rump  Parliament,"  consisting  of  about 
fifty  independents  and  commoners  thoroughly  in  sympa- 
thy with  and  supported  by  Cromwell  and  his  "  Iron-sides," 
governs  England.  Scotland  proclaims  Charles  II.  king 
on  his  subscribing  to  their  covenant,  and  Irelan,d  rises  in 
his  favor.  Cromwell  defeats  the  Scotch  at  Worcester, 
suppresses  the  Irish  demonstration,  and  Charles  escapes 
disguised  to  France. 

Growing  difficulties  between  the  army  and  the  parlia- 
ment; Cromwell  at  last  forcibly  turns  out  the  "Rump," 
and  a  new  parliament  ("  Barebones* ")  is  chosen,  as  thor- 
oughly as  possible  in  sympathy  with  his  own  ideas ; 
after  a  little  they  resign  their  power  to  Cromwell,  who  is 
named  "  Lord  Protector  "  of  England. 

THE  PROTECTORATE.  —  Cromwell,  Lord  Pro- 
tector of  the  Commonwealth  of  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland,  rules  according  to  "  the 
instrument  of  government,"  a  written  constitution  defin- 
ing the  powers,  rights,  relations,  and  duties  of  the  various 
ruling  powers  of  England.  By  this  instrument  parlia- 
ments are  to  be  triennial,  are  to  have  sole  power  of  granting 
supplies  and  levying  taxes ;  a  standing  army  is  to  be  sup- 
ported, and  the  Lord  Protector  is  to  be  the  chief  executor 
of  the  state. 

England  is  now  divided  into  military  districts,  each 
under  a  major-general,  whose  troops  are  supported  by  tax- 
ing royalist  estates.  Episcopal  clergymen  are  forbidden 
to  preach,  and  priests  are  banished;  all  publications  are 
examined  by  the  government,  and  only  those  it  approves 
are  allowed  to  circulate. 


448  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

On  the  death  of  Oliver  Cromwell  (1658),  his  son  Rich- 
ard is  proclaimed  Lord  Protector  in  his  stead.  The  army 
and  parliament  quarrel;  Richard,  helpless  to  reconcile 
them,  resigns,  and  the  English  portion  of  the  army  expels 
the  parliament  (re-assembled  "  Rump ") ;  divisions  arise 
in  the  army,  and  Monk,  the  general  of  the  Scottish  troops, 
marches  on  London  and  proclaims  a  "  Free  Parliament." 
By  this  "  Free  Parliament,"  or  convention,  Charles  II.  is 
proclaimed  the  king  of  England,  on  the  conditions  which 
he  himself  offers,  —  a  general  amnesty  to  his  enemies,  and 
toleration  of  all  religious  opinions  not  hurtful  to  the  state 
(Declaration  of  Breda). 

THE  RESTORATION.  —  Charles  abolishes  all  the 
old  feudal  dues,  in  consideration  of  a  yearly  in- 
come of  $6,000,000,  and  disbands  the  army.  Par- 
liament, under  the  lead  of  Clarendon,  repeals  the  measures 
of  the  preceding  twenty-eight  years ;  orders  the  "  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant "  to  be  burned,  and  passes  the  Cor- 
poration Act,  by  which  all  magistrates  must  commune 
with  the  Church  of  England,  abjure  the  covenant,  and 
take  an  oath  declaring  it  illegal  to  bear  arms  against  the 
king.  Continual  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  king  and  his 
ministers  to  procure  measures  from  parliament  that  will 
favor  Catholics,  and  increase  the  forces  at  the  disposal  of 
the  king ;  continued  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  parliament 
and  the  nation  to  keep  non-conformists  and  Catholics  out 
of  office,  and  to  see  that  the  taxes  and  the  troops  raised 
by  the  nation  be  used  for  national  purposes.  These  efforts 
end,  (a),  in  the  passing  of  the  Test  Act,  which  requires  all 
government  officers  to  commune  with  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  to  declare  against  transubstantiation ;  this  act 
calls  forth  a  strong  and  definite  party  of  Dissenters ;  (5), 
in  the  formation  of  a  small  standing  army  under  the  king's 
command,  to  be  used  in  the  foreign  wars  of  the  period; 


MODERN    EUROPE.  449 

(c),  in  a  powerful  agitation  against  Roman  Catholics,  cul- 
minating in  an  unsuccessful  movement  to  exclude  the 
king's  Catholic  brother  James  from  the  English  throne. 
The  troubles  threatened  by  these  conflicting  efforts  on 
the  part  of  the  king  and  parliament  are  averted,  (a),  by 
changes  of  ministers,  (5),  by  compromises,  made  mostly 
by  the  king,  (<?),  by  pensions  to  Charles  from  Lewis  XIV. 
of  France.  That  is,  during  this  reign  the  great  measures 
of  state  are  mostly  planned  and  urged  by  a  small  group 
of  the  king's  advisers  or  friends,  who  form  a  sort  of  min- 
istry, but  whom  the  king  changes  when  they  too  greatly 
displease  either  himself  or  parliament ;  now,  too,  the  king 
adopts  a  regular  policy  of  compromise,  thus  often  obtain- 
ing his  own  way  while  warding  off  the  civil  conflict  of  the 
preceding  reign.  When,  however,  parliament  pushes  him 
too  hard,  Charles  has  recourse  either  to  some  pretext 
for  foreign  war,  which  forces  parliament  to  grant  supplies 
and  troops,  or  else  obtains  a  pension  from  Lewis,  which 
enables  him  to  live  and  reign  without  calling  on  parlia- 
ment. Although  no  serious  break  occurs  between  the 
nation  and  the  king,  great  discontent  is  caused  by  the 
leaning  of  the  court  toward  Catholicism,  by  the  shifting 
policy  of  Charles,  arid  by  his  secret  and  disgraceful  de- 
pendence on  the  French  king. 

In  1685  James  II.,  his  brother,  accedes.  He  allows  Ro- 
man Catholic  worship,  favors  Papists,  brings  them  into 
office,  and  forbids  Protestant  clergymen  to  preach  doctri- 
nal sermons ;  he  forms  a  camp  of  13,000  men  near  London, 
declares  liberty  of  conscience  throughout  the  realm,  and 
orders  this  declaration  to  be  read  in  all  the  churches; 
seven  prominent  bishops  petition  him  not  to  insist  upon 
this  reading ;  the  king  commits  them  to  the  tower,  and 
brings  them  to  judgment ;  the}7"  are,  however,  acquitted, 
and  on  the  day  of  their  acquittal  an  invitation,  signed  by 


450  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

noble  and  leading  Englishmen,  is  sent  to  William  of 
Orange,  husband  of  Mary,  daughter  of  James  II.,  to  "  save 
England  from  a  Catholic  tyranny."  William  comes  at 
once  to  England,  James  II.  flees  to  France,  parliament 
offers  the  crown  to  William  and  Mary  jointly  (1689), 
on  condition  of  their  agreeing  that  law  shall  neither 
be  imposed  nor  suspended,  nor  moneys  levied  without 
the  consent  of  parliament ;  that  it  shall  be  lawful  to 
petition  the  sovereign ;  that  no  standing  army  shall  be 
maintained  without  the  consent  of  parliament;  that  elec- 
tion for  parliament  and  debates  within  it  shall  be  free, 
and  that  parliaments  shall  be  frequently  held  (Declara- 
tion of  Rights}. 

William  and  Mary  accept,  and  the  so-called  "  Revolu- 
tion of  1688"  is  accomplished.  The  government  moves 
on  in  accordance  with  the  Declaration  of  Rights,  which 
becomes  a  settled  part  of  the  constitution;  from  this  time 
on,  moreover,  the  Commons  assume  as  their  right  the 
practices  which  had  grown  up  under  Charles  II.  of  giving 
the  king  a  fixed  income  ;  of  demanding  from  the  king 
and  his  ministers  estimates  and  accounts  of  supplies  de- 
manded, and  of  voting  definite  sums  for  definite  purposes. 
An  act  of  toleration  is  passed,  freeing  dissenters  from 
punishment  for  not  attending  the  services  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  and  the  censorship  of  the  press  is  abolished. 
Lingering  dissatisfaction  and  revolt  in  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land suppressed. 

During  this  reign  the  Ministry,  led  by  some  chief,  or 
Prime  Minister,  becomes  a  recognized  and  constitutional 
part  of  the  government,  and  the  ministers  are  held  re- 
sponsible for  the  measures  of  the  monarch. 

Anne,  second  daughter  of  James  II.,  queen. 
In  1707  England  and  Scotland  are  united  by  the 
name  of  Great  Britain,  under  one  monarch  and 


I      1702 


MODERN   EUROPE.  451 

one  parliament.  During  this  reign  the  custom  is  estab- 
lished that  the  ministry  shall  belong  to  the  party  which 
has  the  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons.  Parties 
(Whig  and  Tory)  become  a  strongly  marked  feature  of 
English  politics. 

House  of  Hanover  or  Brunswick  ;  William  and 
the  first  three  G-eorges.  Chief  interests  of  Great 
Britain,  foreign  and  colonial.  See  a. 

STUDY  ON  6. 

What  is  the  real  nature  of  the  government  named  the  Common- 
wealth? The  Protectorate?  What  resemblance  between  Crom- 
well and  the  kings  of  the  "  Old  Regime  "  ?  What  difference  ?  What 
two  important  changes  in  the  relation  to  the  king  and  the  state  are 
made  at  the  time  of  the  Restoration  ?  What  do  the  acts  of  the  first 
freely  elected  parliament  of  the  Restoration  indicate  in  regard  to  the 
religious  attitude  of  the  majority  of  English  people  ?  How  will  you 
describe  their  nature  ?  After  the  Restoration,  what  or  who  holds  the 
strongest  political  power  in  England  ?  Prove  it.  What  are  the  two 
points  of  James'  offence  against  England?  In  what  ways  is  the 
acceptance  of  the  "  Declaration  of  Rights  "  a  revolution  ?  In  whose 
hands  does  it  place  the  chief  political  power  of  England?  What 
power  has  the  House  of  Commons  to  force  the  government  to  yield  to 
its  wishes?  Illustrate.  What  new  organ  becomes  a  part  of  the 
British  government'?  Whom  does  this  organ  represent?  What  new 
organization  among  the  people  is  called  forth  by  this  organ  ?  When 
does  the  government  of  England  cease  to  be  properly  classed  as  a 
feudal  government?  What  remains  of  its  old  feiidal  organization? 

2.     Famous    Works,   Foundations,    Enterprises,  Inven- 
tions, Investigations,  and  Discoveries  of  the  Period. 

a.     Publications  of  the  Press. 

In  England,  the  most  important  books  of  the  last  half 
of  the  seventeenth  century  are  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost," 
a  poem  based  on  the  story  of  the  temptation  and  fall  of 
Adam;  Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's  Progress,"  an  allegory 


452  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTOEY. 

describing  the  progress  of  the  human  soul  from  sin  to  full 
salvation  and  a  heavenly  home ;  Butler's  "  Hudibras,"  a 
poem  satirizing  the  English  Puritans;  Hobbes'  "  Levia- 
than "  (see  p.  434)  ;  Newton's  "  Priricipia,"  enunciating  the 
principle  of  gravitation  and  the  system  of  the  physical 
universe ;  this  work  is  made  known  to  France  by  Vol- 
taire;  the  poems  of  Dryderi,  the  most  famous  of  which 
satirize  contemporary  events  and  persons  in  political  life; 
Locke's  "  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding,"  written 
to  show  that  human  sensation  and  experience  are  the  only 
sure  bases  of  human  knowledge,  and  happiness  the  final 
aim  of  conduct,  a  work  popularized  in  France  by  Voltaire ; 
a  mass  of  ephemeral  pamphlets,  written  on  the  various 
political  and  religious  questions  which  are  agitating  Eng- 
land. 

The  notable  works  of  the  eighteenth  century  are :  Adam 
Smith's  "  Wealth  of  Nations,"  a  book  setting  forth  the 
natural  laws  of  trade,  especially  that  of  "Supply  and 
Demand,"  and  considered  to  have  founded  the  science  of 
"  Political  Economy  "  or  the  study  of  these  laws,  at  least 
among  English  speaking  nations ;  Gibbon's  "  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  a  history  of  Rome  founded 
on  the  study  of  original  and  contemporary  authorities; 
Hume's  "  History  of  England." 

A  mass  of  controversial  books  and  pamphlets,  on  the  one 
side  attacking,  on  the  other  defending,  the  established 
dogmas  of  the  Christian  church.  On  both  sides  the  argu- 
ments are  drawn  from  the  observed  facts  of  nature,  from 
history,  and  from  the  conclusions  of  the  human  reason. 
Of  the  opponents  of  Christianity  Hume  and  Gibbon  are 
the  most  famous,  while  Butler's  "Analogy"  and  Bishop 
Berkeley's  writings  are  perhaps  its  strongest  defences. 

Pope's  "Essay  on  Man,"  a  didactic  poem,  dealing  with 
the  powers,  relations,  and  aims  of  human  existence ;  Swift's 


MODERN   EUROPE.  453 

"  Gulliver's  Travels,"  an  imaginary  journey,  satirizing  exist- 
ing social  and  political  institutions  and  customs;  Addison's 
"  Spectator,"  and  other  periodical  papers  designed  for 
popular  reading  and  discussing  questions  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy,  of  society,  and  politics;  Johnson's 
"  Rasselas  "  or  the  "  Happy  Valley,"  a  romance  showing 
that  every  condition  of  life  has  its  miseries,  which  should 
be  met  by  a  spirit  of  philosophic  or  religious  content. 

The  novels  of  Richardson,  De  Foe,  Goldsmith,  Smollett, 
and  Fielding,  conveying  moral  teaching  through  stories 
whose  characters  and  situations  are  drawn  from  the  study 
of  contemporary  life,  often  from  that  of  the  middle  classes. — 
The  parliamentary  speeches  of  the  elder  and  younger  Pitt, 
of  Burke  and  Fox,  on  the  political  issues  of  the  day. 

The  philosophic  and  legal  writings  of  Jeremy  Bentham, 
who  maintained  that  the  fundamental  aim  of  society,  law, 
and  government  should  be  "  the  greatest  happiness  to  the 
greatest  number,"  and  that  utility  should  be  the  prime 
consideration  of  all  actions  and  institutions.  His  writings 
were  very  famous  on  the  continent,  especially  in  France. 

Johnson's  Dictionary  and  Chamber's  Cyclopedia,  the 
first  important  publications  of  this  sort  in  the  English  lan- 
guage ;  before  the  close  of  the  century,  the  first  edition  of 
the  Cyclopedia  Britannica  appeared. 

In  France,  from  1648  to  1700,  the  most  famous  writings 
are  the  tragedies  of  Racine  and  Corneille,  written  on  clas- 
sical themes  and  models,  and  the  comedies  of  Molidre, 
satirizing  affectation  in  contemporary  literary,  social,  and 
religious  life  ;  —  the  mathematical  discoveries  and  specula- 
tions of  Pascal,  who  was  also  noted  as  a  religious  writer. 

The  famous  French  books  of  the  eighteenth  century 
are  the  "Social  Contract"  and  the  "Emile  "  of  Rousseau, 
the  former  a  powerful,  bitter,  and  popular  criticism  on 
existing  governments  and  societies ;  the  latter  a  work  on 


454  "STUDIES  IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

education,  proposing  the  study  of  physical  nature  as  the 
basis  of  all  culture,  a  theory  of  education  largely  borrowed 
from  Locke;  —  the  essays,  letters,  and  historical  works  of 
Voltaire,  containing  the  keenest  and  most  effective  satirical 
attacks  upon  the  contemporary  state,  church,  and  society; 
—  Montesquieu's  "Spirit  of  the  Laws,"  a  book  in  which  he 
discussed  the  philosophy  of  states,  the  benefits,  the  dan- 
gers, and  evils  of  various  forms  of  government,  the  relations 
of  liberty  and  taxation  ;  throughout  this  work,  the  British 
constitution  is  regarded  as  the  best  existing  form ;  —  the 
philosophical  writings  of  the  sensationalists,  who  followed 
Locke's  philosophy  to  the  extreme,  in  maintaining  that 
sensation  is  the  basis  of  morals  as  well  as  of  knowledge;  — 
the  "Natural  History"  of  Buffon,  containing  a  brilliant  and 
accurate  description  of  a  large  portion  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, together  with  philosophical  theories  of  their  relations 
to  each  other  and  their  environment;  —  the  "Cyclopedia," 
a  work  perhaps  suggested  by  that  of  Chambers,  edited 
and  written  by  the  best  contemporary  authors;  it  paid 
especial  attention  to  all  subjects  connected  with  natural 
science ;  —  the  first  standard  French  dictionary  also  ap- 
peared in  this  century. 

In  Germany,  the  most  famous  publications  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  were  the  philosophic  works  of  the  Dutch- 
man, Spinoza,  who  sought  to  discover  by  reason  the  nature 
of  God  arid  the  universe,  and  their  relations  to  the  human 
mind,  and  who  claimed  that  his  conclusions  were  in  accord- 
ance with  the  teachings  of  Christianity. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  appeared  the  works  of  Leib- 
nitz, dealing  with  problems  of  mental  philosophy,  mathe- 
matics, and  optics;  in  philosophy,  he  contested  the 
conclusions  of  the  French  sensationalists ;  —  the  most  fa- 
mous philosophic  work  of  the  age,  Kant's  "Critique  of 
Pure  Reason,"  in  which  he  examined  the  origin,  extent, 


MODERN   EUROPE.  455 

and  limits  of  human  reason,  and  argued  for  the  existence  of 
God  and  the  absolute  obligations  of  morality  ;  —  Goethe's 
"Faust,"  a  drama  embodying  the  temptations,  fall,  and 
restoration  of  a  human  soul ;  the  dramas  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller,  dealing  largely  with  historical  epochs  and  charac- 
ters, studied  from  historical  sources,  and  from  observation  of 
actual  life  ;  —  a  mass  of  lyric  poetry  ;  —  Lessing's  "  Nathan 
the  Wise,"  a  dramatic  poem  in  which  a  Jew,  a  Christian, 
and  a  Mohammedan  discuss  religious  tolerance  and  uni- 
versal morality,  reaching  conclusions  favorable  to  both. 

The  famous  publications  of  other  countries  during  this 
period  were,  in  Italy,  the  writings  of  Vico,  who  was  the 
first  to  found  any  philosophy  of  history,  and  who  main- 
tained the  existence  of  Providence  in  the  greater  affairs  of 
men  ;  the  dramas  of  Alfieri,  who  founded  Italian  tragedy, 
using  classical  materials,  but  pure  and  noble  Italian  forms. — 
In  America,  the  political  speeches,  pamphlets,  and  essays 
of  Franklin,  Washington,  Jefferson,  Adams;  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  —  In  Sweden,  the  botanical  work  of 
Linnaeus,  who  was  the  first  systematically  and  thoroughly 
to  classify  the  various  genera  of  plants. 

b.   Important  Investigations,   Studies,  and  Researches  of 

the  Period. 

Many  experiments  to  separate  matter  into  its  original 
elements,  resulting  in  Priestley's  famous  discovery  of  oxy- 
gen in  the  seventeenth  century  in  England,  followed  by 
the  discovery  of  many  new  elements,  and  the  clear  defini- 
tion of  chemistry.  —  The  observations  and  experiments  of 
Huygens  in  Holland  and  of  Newton  in  England  on  the 
nature  of  light  and  its  action  on  various  sorts  of  lenses ; 
the  telescope  is  consequently  greatly  improved,  and  new 
laws  of  optics  are  discovered.  —  During  the  whole  period 
men  are  engaged  in  observing  and  experimenting  and 


456  STUDIES   IK   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

theorizing  on  the  nature  of  light,  heat,  and  electricity.. 
(See  also  Newton,  Linnaeus,  Buffoii.) 

c.  Material  Improvements  of  Period. 

Lewis  XIV.  began  to  improve  French  roads  during  his 
reign,  an  improvement  slowly  extended  to  other  European 
countries.  —  During  his  reign  also  (1667),  Paris  was  well 
and  thoroughly  lighted,  and  before  the  close  of  the  period 
Vienna  and  London  had  followed  this  example.  —  The 
building  of  canals,  especially  in  England.  —  The  invention 
of  the  "  spinning-jenny,"  by  which  the  work  of  many  hand- 
laborers  could  be  done  by  one  machine  (developed  by  Har- 
greaves,  Arkwright,  Crompton,  weavers)  ;  the  invention 
of  the  STEAM-ENGINE,  by  the  Scotch  working-engineer 
James  Watt,  and  its  application  to  manufactures  and  to 
mining ;  —  the  discovery  of  how  to  smelt  iron  with  coal 
instead  of  with  wood.  —  Many  small  and  progressive 
improvements  in  microscopes,  telescopes,  clocks,  pumps, 
electrical  conductors,  and  all  sorts  of  scientific  apparatus. 

d.  Artistic  Productions. 

The  most  famous  are  the  musical  compositions  of  Bach, 
Beethoven,  and  Mozart  (German)  ;  —  the  landscape-paint- 
ings of  Claude  Lorraine  (French)  ;  —  the  portrait-paintings 
of  Gainsborough  and  Reynolds  (English)  ;  —  the  carica- 
tures of  Hogarth  (English),  satirizing  contemporary  life. 

e.  Famous  Foundations,  Institutions,  and  Movements. 
The  foundation  of  European  colonies  in  North  America ; 

the  English  and  Dutch  (in  New  York)  established  the 
thirteen  colonies  which  became  the  United  States ;  —  the 
French  settled  more  thoroughly  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia 
and  established  scattered  forts  along  the  Great  Lakes,  the 
St.  Lawrence,  the  Mississippi,  and  their  tributaries.  In 


MODERN   EUROPE.  457 

India,  English  and  French  established  trading-posts,  and 
the  English  established  a  system  of  government  by  which 
India  was  more  or  less  ruled  by  English  merchants  in  the 
interests  of  '  English  enterprise.  —  The  establishment  of 
great  business  or  trading  corporations,  such  as  the  Bank 
of  England  and  East  India  Company  of  London.  —  The 
establishment  of  societies  or  academies  of  wealthy  and 
learned  men,  for  the  advancement  of  science  and  learning. 


BIRD'S-EYE   VIEW  OP  THB  PALACE   OP  VERSAILLES. 

Of  these  the  most  famous  was  "The  Royal  Society"  in 
England,  whose  "  business  was,"  says  one  of  its  early  mem- 
bers, "  to  discourse  and  consider  of  philosophical  enquiries 
and  such  as  related  thereunto,  as  Physick,  Anatomy, 
Geometry,  Astronomy,  Navigation  .  .  .  Chymicks,  Mechan- 
icks,  and  Natural  Experiments";  such  academies  were 
founded  also  in  Germany,  Russia,  and  France  during  the 
period  under  royal  patronage.  —  The  observatory  fit  Green- 


458  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

wieh  was  established  under  Charles  II.,  and  that  at  Paris 
under  Lewis  XIV.  —  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  British  Museum  was  founded  to  serve  as  a 
depository  for  collections  to  illustrate  art,  history,  and 
science.  —  Under  Charles  II.  the  Chelsea  hospital  for  dis- 
abled soldiers,  and  under  William  and  Mary  that  at  Green- 
wich for  disabled  sailors  were  established ;  in  Paris,  Lewis 
XIV.  built  the  "  Hotel  des  Invalides "  for  old  and  sick 
soldiers.  —  This  age  saw  the  erection  of  many  royal  palaces 
and  fine  town  and  country  houses  for  the  nobility ;  of  the 
palaces,  Versailles,  built  by  Lewis  XIV.,  has  become  the 
most  famous. 

The  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  marked, 
especially  in  England,  by  much  agitation  for  the  improve- 
ment of  human  conditions,  especially  among  the  silent 
and  neglected  classes.  This  agitation  was  carried  on  in 
behalf  of  the  poor  and  sick,  in  behalf  of  the  imprisoned 
and  the  enslaved,  in  behalf  of  the  savages  of  America  and 
the  Hindoos  of  Asia;  it  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
various  hospitals  and  charities,  in  prison  reform  (John 
Howard),  in  the  condemnation  of  British  cruelty  and 
oppression  in  India,  and,  under  the  lead  of  Wilberforce, 
in  the  abolition  of  negro  slavery  in  the  British  colonies 
(early  in  following  period).  These  movements  were 
accompanied  by  a  great  religious  revival  among  the  lower 
classes  (Wesleys),  and  by  a  reform  within  the  English 
Church. 

STUDY  ON  2. 

What  relation  between  the  literature  and  the  events  of  the  last  half 
of  the  seventeenth  century  in  England?  Give  five  illustrations. 
What  do  you  find  common  to  the  literature  of  France  and  England  ? 
What  subjects  are  of  general  interest  throughout  Europe?  What 
three  subjects  new  to  European  thought  appear  during  this  time  ? 
What  bases  of  truth  are  men  seeking  for?  Illustrate.  What  rela- 
tion between  the  literature  and  the  life  of  this  period,  religious,  social, 


MODERN   EUROPE.  459 

moral  ?  What  new  classes  of  literature  appear  ?  What  does  each  of 
these  classes  tell  us  of  the  taste,  intelligence,  or  interest  of  the  time? 
Of  these  classes,  which  has  developed  greatly  in  our  own  day?  In 
which  country  is  the  literature  most  revolutionary  ?  What  relation 
between  English  and  French  thought?  What  is  the  general  attitude 
of  the  publications  of  the  period  toward  toleration?  Freedom? 
Morality  ? 

Make  a  list  of  the  new  arts,  sciences,  industries,  or  activities  shown 
by  b,  c,  d,  and  e.  Which  of  these  has  further  developed  in  our  own 
century?  What  relation  between  the  material  and  intellectual  prog- 
ress of  the  period  and  the  kings  ? 

I.  A6.  Special  Study  of  the  "Old  Regime9'  in  France. 
Age  of  Lewis  XIV.,  Lewis  XV.,  and  Lewis  XVI. 
(Eighteenth  Century}. 

Chief  contemporary  sources  of  its  history :  The  "  Ca- 
hiers "  of  the  departments  of  France,  called  in  by  the 
States-General  of  1789,  and  containing  memoranda  of  griev- 
ances, and  official  statements  of  conditions ;  private  letters 
and  diaries ;  the  travels  of  Arthur  Young,  an  Englishman 
who  made  careful  observations  in  France  on  the  eve  of 
the  Revolution  ;  the  works  of  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and 
other  writers  of  the  time. 

Chief  historians  of  period :  De  Tocqueville,  Taine, 
Stephens. 


460 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


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462  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

2.    Extracts  and  Facts  Illustrative  of  Organization. 

Six  ministers  divide  the  kingdom  geographically  be- 
tween them ;  thus  the  minister  of  war  has  charge  of  all 
the  affairs  of  Dauphiny  and  some  other  territory ;  the 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  regulates  pensions  and  all  the 
affairs  of  Normandy  and  a  few  other  provinces.  Some  of 
these  provinces  largely  manage  their  own  affairs;  others, 
the  king  rules  absolutely;  in  some,  one  per  cent  of  taxes  is 
assessed,  in  others,  a  large  per  cent;  in  taking  goods  from 
one  province  to  another,  duties  are  always  exacted  at  the 
frontier,  but  the  amount  levied  varies  with  every  boun- 
dary. If  a  village  church  needs  repairing,  if  the  road  is 
bad,  if  a  parish-meeting  is  to  be  called,  if  the  "falling 
gables  of  the  parsonage  even  of  a  village  most  remote 
from  Paris "  are  to  be  rebuilt,  the  king's  officer  attends  to 
it.  If  the  king  wants  to  make  a  new  road  or  a  new  palace, 
he  seizes  the  land  and  tears  down  the  houses  of  those  who 
live  on  the  spot.  Perhaps  he  pays  them,  perhaps  not. 

Punishments  are  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  judges; 
but  in  general,  when  death  is  the  penalty,  nobles  are  be- 
headed, others  burnt,  broken  at  the  wheel,  torn  in  pieces, 
or  hung.  Says  one  writer,  "A  poor  wretch,  whose  chil- 
dren have  nothing  to  eat,  engages  in  some  contraband 
trade ;  is  found  out  and  punished.  A  gentleman,  riding 
in  his  post-chaise,  is  caught  doing  the  same  thing ;  he  kills 
the  custom-house  officer  and  gets  off  free."  Sometimes 
men  are  judged  by  the  king's  law,  sometimes  by  the  law 
of  the  Church,  sometimes  by  the  law  of  the  province  or 
the  town ;  in  one  part  of  Auvergne,  the  people  obey  the 
written  Roman  law,  in  another  the  customary  law.  In 
one  part  of  France,  a  brigand  with  a  band  of  two  hundred 
men  is  able  to  desolate  the  country  for  ten  years  without 
being  brought  to  judgment. 

Not  only  do  the  judges  buy  their  places,  but  sometimes 


MODERN   EUROPE.  463 

Wo  or  three  men  hold  the  same  office  at  the  same  time. 
"  An  officer,  instead  of  raging  and  storming  over  the  year- 
book, busies  himself  in  inventing  some  new  disguise  for 
a  masked-ball ;  a  magistrate,  instead  of  counting  the  con- 
victions he  has  secured,  provides  a  magnificent  supper." 

In  1692,  Lewis  XIV.  displaces  in  favor  of  his  own  nomi- 
nees the  elected  mayors  and  judicial  assessors  of  every 
city  except  Lyons ;  in  one  city  alone  he  creates  and  sells 
nineteen  royal  offices.  The  sixty  royal  tax-collectors 
sometimes  levy  twice  as  much  as  they  give  to  the  treasury. 
From  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  to  the  end  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  the  royal  government  breaks  its  word 
fifty-six  times. — For  the  war  of  1688,  the  French  people 
pay  about  $200,000,000,  for  that  of  1701,  twice  that 
amount ;  not  to  mention  a  heavy  pension  paid  to  the  king 
of  England  during  several  years  to  keep  him  quiet  and  to 
help  him  in  his  despotic  designs  at  home. 

In  the  army  there  are  more  than  one  thousand  generals; 
in  one  single  regiment  of  four  hundred  eighty-two  men, 
there  are  one  hundred  and  forty-two  officers.  One  duke  be- 
comes a  colonel  at  eleven,  another  at  seven,  another  a 
major  at  twelve.  These  boys  are  relations  or  favorites  of 
people  at  court,  who  buy  or  beg  the  offices  for  them  from 
the  king.  The  common  soldiers  are  chosen  by  lot  from 
the  lowest  class.  Those  chosen  "conceal  themselves  in  the 
forest,  where  they  must  be  pursued  with  arms  in  the  hand. 
In  one  canton  .  .  .  the  young  men  cut  off  their  thumbs  to 
escape  the  draft."  The  officers  have  plenty  of  money, 
good  living,  leisure,  pleasure;  the  soldier  "has  six  sous 
a  day,  bread  fit  for  dogs,  and  .  .  .  kicks  like  those  given  to 
a  dog";  add  to  this,  no  chance  of  promotion. 

Catholicism  is  the  religion  of  the  State ;  in  1685,  by 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  Protestants  are 
forbidden  to  worship  in  public ;  all  pastors  must  leave  the 


464  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

realm  in  fifteen  days ;  the  galleys  for  life  ...  if  they  dare 
to  officiate  again ;  all  children  must  be  educated  as 
Catholics. 

The  "  bank  of  conversions  "  is  an  institution  peculiar  to 
the  "  Old  Regime."  It  is  a  fund  out  of  which  people  are 
hired  to  be  converted;  some  need  conversion  several 
times ;  others  have  troops  billeted  on  them  until  they 
subscribe  to  the  religion  of  the  State,  when  they  are  to  be 
free  for  two  years.  This  last  arrangement  is  known  by 
the  name  of  the  "  Dragonnades." 

The  income  of  the  Church  may  be  reckoned  at  $26,000,- 
000 ;  in  some  parts  of  France,  the  clergy  own  more  than 
one-half  the  territory.  Over  these  domains  they  have  the 
same  feudal  rights  as  the  nobles.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
parish  priest  gets  about  $100  a  year ;  he  may  have  several 
parishes  to  look  after  and  visit,  perhaps  on  foot;  he  must 
teach  the  village  school ;  advise  and  comfort  the  peasants. 

In  trade,  if  a  man  wants  to  sell  hats,  he  must  belong  to 
the  hatter's  guild ;  this  may  be  entered  by  being  the  son 
of  a  guildman,  by  paying  a  large  sum  of  money,  by 
passing  a  severe  examination  set  by  the  guild ;  once  in,  he 
can  neither  sell  caps  nor  gloves,  but  only  hats,  for  other 
guilds  have  the  exclusive  right  to  sell  caps,  others  to  sell 
gloves.  So  with  other  trades;  at  Rouen,  one  company 
buys  grain  for  the  city,  another  delivers  it,  another  grinds 
it;  not  only  must  each  company  do  its  own  particular 
work  and  no  other,  but  the  people  must  deal  with  it 
and  with  no  one  else.  The  guilds  pay  the  king  large  sums 
of  money  for  these  exclusive  privileges.  The  king's 
government,  we  are  told  by  De  Tocqueville,  constantly 
dictates  how  long  pieces  of  cloth  shall  be  woven,  and  what 
pattern  is  to  be  chosen. 

Voltaire,  wishing  to  publish  in  France  the  wonderful 
discoveries  of  Newton,  is  forbidden  by  the  authorities  to 


MODERN   EUROPE.  465 

print  his  work.  —  In  1770,  Irabert  translates  Clarke's  letters 
on  Spain,  one  of  the  best  works  then  existing  on  that 
country,  but  it  is  suppressed  as  soon  as  it  appears;  the 
reason  given  is  that  it  contains  some  remarks  on  the  pas- 
sion of  Charles  III.  for  hunting,  which  are  considered 
disrespectful  to  Lewis  XV.,  himself  very  fond  of  the  chase. 
These  instances  are  typical  out  of  a  large  number. 

3.    Attempted  Reforms  in  1. 

Turgot,  the  first  minister  of  Lewis  XVL,  1774,  proposes 
to  do  away  with  the  forced  and  unpaid  labor  of  the  peas- 
ants ;  to  tax  the  lands  of  the  nobles  and  clergy ;  to  give 
a  larger  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  clergy  to  the  parish 
priests ;  to  allow  men  to  worship  according  to  their  con- 
sciences ;  to  fix  one  code  of  law  for  the  whole  kingdom ; 
to  abolish  the  guilds  and  the  fees  for  engaging  in  trade, 
and  to  make  the  trade  in  grain  entirely  free ;  to  make 
thought  free,  and  to  establish  a  great  system  of  public 
schools ;  but  in.  1776  the  king  dismisses  him,  because  the 
queen,  the  nobles,  and  the  clergy  oppose  him. 

Necker,  his  next  minister,  suppresses  many  of  the  offices 
about  the  king's  household;  he  frees  the  serfs  on  the 
king's  domain,  is  the  first  to  publish  to  the  French  people 
any  account  of  the  income  and  outlay  of  the  government ; 
but  courtiers  and  officials  alike  demand  his  dismissal. 

Necker's  successor,  Calonne,  is  obliged  to  own  an  annual 
deficit  of  $20,000,000 ;  calls  for  a  land  tax  on  all  classes, 
for  economy  in  the  administration  and  in  the  king's  house- 
hold, and  at  last  threatens  to  appeal  to  the  people.  His  dis- 
missal is  demanded  from  the  king,  and  he  is  sent  into  exile. 

Brienne,  the  next  royal  minister,  can  find  no  way  of 
raising  money,  and  resigns  after  having  proposed  to  reform 
the  administration  of  justice,  the  system  of  education,  and 
abolish  Protestant  disabilities. 


466  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Necker  is  now  recalled,  and  advises  that  all  citizens  be 
admitted  to  public  employments,  that  the  press  shall  be 
free ;  but  the  opposition  is  such  as  to  force  the  calling  of 
the  States-General  (see  p.  336)  in  order  to  raise  money  for 
the  king,  and  to  deliberate  on  the  unfortunate  affairs  of 
the  realm. 

STUDY  ON   I,  2,  3. 

What  name  do  you  give  to  such  a  government  as  that  of  France 
under  the  "  Old  Regime  "  ?  Make  a  list  of  the  ways  in  which  it  is  an 
unjust  government.  An  oppressive  one.  A  weak  one.  What  is  its 
support?  What  great  difficulty  evidently  hampers  it?  What  grave 
evils  follow  from  this  difficulty  ?  What  governments  does  it  in  any 
way  resemble  ?  What  do  you  think  about  the  changes  proposed  by 
the  king's  ministers  ?  What  interests  evidently  stand  in  the  way  of 
reform  ? 

4.  Extracts,  Stories,  Facts,  and  Statistics  Illustrative  of 
Life  of  the  Time. 

The  king  lives  mostly  in  his  palace  at  Versailles.  He  has 
some  ninety  gentlemen  to  take  care  of  his  bed-chamber,  nearly 
five  hundred  for  his  table,  and  more  than  fifteen  hundred  to 
attend  to  his  horses.  These  offices  about  the  royal  person  and 
household  are  considered  the  most  honorable  in  the  kingdom, 
since  they  are  all  filled  by  nobles  whose  pay  is  high,  while  their 
duties  are  very  light  or  even  nominal.  Besides  the  household 
officers,  the  king  has  his  guards,  French  and  Swiss,  cavalry 
and  infantry,  more  than  nine  thousand  men,  costing  the  people 
annually  more  than  $1,500,000.  When  the  king  makes  a  jour- 
ney, all  these  people  must  accompany  him,  at  the  expense  of 
the  State. 

In  1783,  no  less  than  $33,800  is  paid  for  feeding  the  king's 
horses,  and  more  than  $10,000  for  feeding  his  hunting-dogs. 
The  coffee  and  bread  for  each  of  the  ladies  of  the  bed-chamber 
costs  $400  a  year.  The  court-kitchen,  according  to  the  printed 
register,  employs  two  hundred  and  ninety-five  cooks,  and  the 


MODERN   EUKOPE.  467 

total  number  of  persons  to  be  supported  by  the  king  amounts 
to  more  than  fifteen  thousand. 

The  king  also  gives  many  presents  ;  this  is  especially  true 
of  Lewis  XV.  ;  but  we  find  that  Lewis  XVI.,  in  1785,  gives 
away  more  than  $27,000,000,  and  Von  Sybel  reckons  that  the 
annual  average  given  in  this  way  should  be  reckoned  at 
$20,000,000.  As  for  Lewis  XV.,  it  is  known  that  in  one  year 
he  spends  about  $36,000,000  on  his  own  pleasures.  As  for  the 
palace  of  Versailles  itself,  it  costs  more  than  $50,000,000, 
while  "on  the  bridges,  roads,  public  and  scientific  institutions" 
not  more  than  $7,000,000  are  expended. 

Around  the  king  are  the  dukes,  counts,  and  marquises,  who 
care  for  his  household ;  among  them  are  a  few  men,  mostly  of 
the  middle  class,  whom  the  king  has  asked  to  take  charge  of 
public  business.  These  are  the  ministers  ;  as  for  the  nobles, 
they  spend  their  time  with  the  king,  gaming,  hunting,  making 
a  fine  appearance,  amusing  themselves. 

All  these  nobles  have  great  estates  in  the  country,  which 
they  rarely  visit.  Arthur  Young,  an  English  traveller  of  the 
time,  tells  us  that  the  nobility  neither  practise  nor  talk  of 
"agriculture"  ;  and  as  for  their  own  lands,  two  of  the  greatest 
properties  of  the  time  are  described  as  being  "  wastes,  deserts, 
bracken,"  while  the  residence  is  "probably  found  in  the  midst 
of  a  forest,  very  well  peopled  with  deer,  wild  boars,  and  wolves"  ; 
the  owners  are  so  lightly  taxed  that  it  is  generally  said  that 
they  pay  no  taxes.  Yet  one  fails  on  a  debt  of  $7,000,000,  and 
another  dies  owing  $15,000,000,  and  a  third  when  charged  by 
the  king  with  being  largely  in  debt,  replies,  "I  will  ask  my 
agent  and  inform  your  majesty."  Another  owes  more  than 
$10,000  to  her  shoemaker,  another  more  than  $30,000  to  a 
tailor. 

Walpole  writes,  "It  is  no  dishonor  (in  Paris)  to  keep  public 
gaming-houses ;  there  are  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  first 
quality  in  Paris  who  live  by  it.  ...  Even  the  princesses  of  the 
blood  have  their  share  in  it." 

St.  Simon  tells  us  that  a  baron,  finding  that  the  hut  of  a 


468  STUDIES   IK  GENERAL   HISTORY. 

peasant  destroyed  the  symmetry  of  his  park,  brought  the  man 
to  his  own  house,  and  kept  him  there  while  they  removed  the 
poor  man's  cottage  elsewhere  ;  a  joke  at  which  the  king  and 
his  court  laughed  heartily. 

St.  Simon  also  tells  us  of  a  duke  who  "  was  better  liked  by 
the  king  and  had  more  influence  in  society  than  anybody,"  but 
was  a  cheat  and  a  gambler,  while  there  were  young  men  in  "  this 
singular  society  "  who  admitted  to  their  tables  notorious  crimi- 
nals, who  had  "animating  stories  to  tell"  of  their  own  deeds 
"  as  forgers  or  highwaymen." 

The  daughter  of  the  king's  nephew  and  many  of  her  compan- 
ions are  carried  home  drunk  to  Versailles,  one  night,  while  on 
another  occasion  the  king  finds  the  ladies  of  his  household 
engaged  in  smoking,  with  pipes  which  they  have  borrowed 
from  the  Swiss  guards;  during  the  reign  of  Lewis  XIV., 
many  of  the  nobility  are  detected  in  secretly  poisoning 
people. 

The  great  middle  class  (bourgeoisie)  compose  the  guilds,  and 
are  the  artisans  and  merchants,  manufacturers  and  traders  of 
France.  If  a  man  pays  his  debts  or  has  none,  he  is  called 
"  bourgeois"  ;  if  he  marries  the  woman  he  loves,  "  very  much 
of  a  bourgeois,"  the  term  being  used  as  one  of  ridicule. 
Among  the  bourgeois,  says  an  observer,  "  every  one  speaks 
according  to  his  views,  inclinations,  and  genius  ;  the  women 
look  after  the  house,  the  men  after  the  day's  business,  coming 
home  to  some  quiet  game."  "  While  the  great  neglect  to  learn 
anything  ...  of  the  interest  of  princes  and  public  affairs,  and 
even  of  their  own,  .  .  .  citizens  instruct  themselves  in  the  .  .  . 
interests  of  the  kingdom,  study  the  government,  .  .  .  know 
what  are  the  strong  and  weak  points  of  a  whole  State." 

The  peasants  live  in  houses  of  stone  or  earth,  without 
windows  and  with  earth  chimneys.  They  are  dressed  in  rags, 
and  never  taste  meat ;  there  are  whole  districts  where  they  eat 
grass,  and  thousands  who  live  on  the  bark  of  trees  ;  they  can 
neither  take  game  from  the  forest,  nor  fish  from  the  stream,  for 
these  belong  to  the  lord  of  the  estate.  They  have  old  and 


MODERN   EUROPE.  469 

awkward  tools,  and  can  get  no  better ;  when  the  crops  are  up, 
the  pigeons  and  the  rabbits  and  the  deer  destroy  much  that  the 
peasant  can  raise  ;  but  he  cannot  protect  himself  under  pain  of 
heavy  punishment,  since  the  lord  must  have  the  pleasure  of  the 
hunt,  and  when  the  hunt  comes,  horse  and  hound  may  trample 
down  his  only  wheat-field.  The  tax-gatherer  never  fails  to 
come  to  get  money  for  the  king  or  money  for  the  Church.  Land 
worth  $800  may  pay  $600  for  taxes  ;  it  will  surely  pay  $400  ; 
can  the  peasant  not  pay,  his  furniture  must  be  sold  to  meet  the 
tax.  If  he  want  salt,  he  must  buy  it  of  the  king  ;  should  he  not 
need  it,  still  he  must  buy  or  go  to  prison  or  the  galleys  ;  this 
is  the  hated  "Gabelle."  As  for  his  lord,  to  him  he  must  pay 
for  feudal  dues,  a  part  of  all  his  fields,  his  orchards  or  his  vine- 
yard yield.  For  a  certain  number  of  days  each  }*ear  he  must 
give  his  own  labor  and  that  of  his  oxen  and  his  horses,  even 
though  the  lord  should  choose  to  take  him  from  the  very  harvest- 
field  (coryee.s) .  If  he  is  bound  to  give  five  days  of  such  labor, 
and  has  a  bad  lord,  he  may  be  forced  to  give  one  hundred. 
He  must  bake  in  the  lord's  oven  and  grind  at  the  lord's  mill, 
though  the  miller  and  baker  would  do  it  cheaper  and  better. 
He  can  sell  no  wine  after  vintage,  until  the  lord  has  had  a 
chance  to  sell  for  thirty  or  forty  days  in  the  first  market ;  he 
must  pay  a  toll  on  the  road,  a  toll  at  the  ferry,  a  tax  on  all  he 
takes  to  the  fair.  If  he  wish  to  cure  the  sick  or  discover  a 
thief,  he  will  "go  to  a  sorcerer,  who  divines  this  b}'  means  of 
a  sieve."  In  1789,  it  is  told  and  believed  among  the  soldiers, 
that  the  princes  and  counts  of  Paris  are  throwing  flour  into  the 
Seine  so  as  to  starve  the  people.  "  In  Auvergne  ...  a  conta- 
gious fever  making  its  appearance,  two  hundred  men  assemble 
to  destroy  the  house  of  a  man  whom  they  believe  has  caused 
it  by  sorcery."  There  are  very  few  schools ;  in  one  part  of 
France  but  ten  in  fifty  parishes. 

For  two  centuries,  at  least,  before  the  Revolution,  the  favorite 
resort  of  the  Parisian  populace  is  the  place  of  execution,  where 
the}'  see  the  law  carrying  out  its  horrible  punishments  with  all 
sorts  of  tortures,  such  as  tearing  by  red-hot  pincers. 


470  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL    HISTORY. 

STUDY  ON  LIFE  OF  THE  "OLD  REGIME." 
Make  a  list  of  all  the  ways  in  which  the  king  injures  France  by 
his  style  of  life.  To  what  class  is  he  evidently  in  debt  ?  In  what 
way  will  they  regard  his  style  of  life?  What  other  classes  injure 
France?  What  part  of  France  or  of  her  people  is  injured?  How 
injured?  What  part  of  the  French  people  is  sound?  Name  the 
ways  in  which  it  is  sound.  Name  all  the  ways  in  which  the  French 
peasant,  or  man  of  the  fourth  estate,  is  an  undesirable  citizen.  What 
part  of  the  French  people  will  try  to  destroy  this  "Old  Regime"? 
What  part  will  try  to  reform  it?  Give  reasons  for  each  of  these 
two  answers.  How  far  do  you  attribute  the  character  of  French 
life  under  the  "  Old  Regime "  to  the  organization  of  the  State  ? 
Illustrate  from  each  class  of  people.  What  were  the  ideals  of  this 
period?  How  were  these  ideals  injurious? 

5.   Extracts    and    Sayings  Illustrative  of  Thought  and 
Feeling   under    "  Old  Regime." 

a.  From  Bossuet. 

"The  royal  authority  and  person  are  sacred."  "Kings  are 
gods,  and  share  in  a  manner  the  divine  independence."  "  As 
all  perfection  and  every  virtue  is  united  in  God,  so  all  the 
power  of  private  individuals  is  united  in  the  person  of  the 
king." 

b.  From  the  Kings. 

"  I  myself  am  the  State."  "  The  worst  calamity  which  can 
befall  a  king  is  ...  to  be  obliged  to  receive  the  law  from  his 
people."  "All  property  of  whatever  sort  within  our  realm 
belongs  to  us  in  virtue  of  the  title  of  king."  "  It  is  the  will  of 
God,  who  has  given  kings  to  man,  that  they  should  be  served 
as  his  vicegerents."  "It  is  the  will  of  God  that  every  subject 
should  implicitly  obey  his  king." 

"  In  dispensing  with  the  exact  observance  of  treaties,  we  do 
not  violate  them ;  for  the  language  of  such  instruments  is  never 
to  be  understood  literally." 

"  We  ought  to  consider  the  good  of  our  subjects  more  than 
our  own,  .  .  .  and  it  is  a  fine  thing  to  deserve  from  them  the 
name  of  father  as  well  as  master."  (Lewis  XIV.) 


MODERN   EUROPE.  471 

"  I  know  what  are  the  rights  of  the  authority  I  have  received 
from  God.  It  is  not  for  any  of  my  subjects  to  decide  what  are 
their  extent  or  to  endeavor  to  limit  them."  (Lewis  XV.) 

"  It  is  legal,"  said  Lewis  XVI.,  in  speaking  of  a  very  illegal 
act,  "  it  is  legal  because  I  will  it." 

c.  From  Voltaire. 

"It  may  be  a  question  which  is  the  most  useful  member  of 
the  State,  the  well-powdered  nobleman  who  knows  the  precise 
hour  at  which  the  king  rises  and  retires  for  the  night,  ...  or 
a  merchant  who  enriches  his  country,  issues  orders  from  his 
counting-house  to  Surat  and  Cairo,  and  contributes  to  the  world 
at  large." 

******** 

' '  How  I  love  the  boldness  of  the  English  !  how  I  love  men 
who  say  what  they  think  !  " 

"  I  wish  to  write  a  history,  not  of  wars,  but  of  society ;  and 
to  ascertain  how  men  lived  in  the  interior  of  their  families,  and 
what  were  the  arts  which  they  commonly  cultivated."  1 

d.  From  Rousseau. 

"Your  very  governments  are  the  cause  of  the  evils  which 
they  pretend  to  remedy.  Ye  scepters  of  iron  !  ye  absurd  laws, 
ye  we  reproach  for  our  inability  to  fulfil  our  duties  on  earth  !  " 

"I  am  .  .  .an  active  and  intelligent  being,  and  ...  I  dare 
clairr  the  honor  of  thinking." 

"  O  conscience,  divine  instinct,  immortal  and  celestial  voice, 
the  unfailing  guide  of  an  ignorant  and  finite  but  free  and  intel- 
ligent being."  "  There  is  no  sacred  and  inviolable  charter 
binding  a  people  to  the  forms  of  an  established  constitution. 
The  right  to  change  these  is  the  first  guarantee  of  all  rights." 

1  In  an  important  history  of  France  put  forth  in  1770,  the  authors  regret 
that  historians  had  always  given  the  history  of  a  single  man  rather  than 
that  of  a  people.  "  In  the  work  of  Montesquieu,  on  the  '  Spirit  of  the 
Laws,'  he  studies  the  way  in  which  .  .  .  the  legislation  of  a  people  is 
connected  with  their  climate,  soil,  and  food." 


472  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

"  All  being  equal  through  the  law,  they  must  be  brought  up 
together  and  in  the  same  manner.  The  law  must  regenerate 
.  .  .  their  studies.  The}-  must,  at  the  very  least,  take  part  in 
public  exercises,  in  horse-races,  in  games  of  strength  and  of 
agility." 

"  He  who  first  enclosed  a  plot  of  ground,  and  took  it  into  his 
head  to  say,'  This  belongs  to  me,'  and  found  people  simple  enough 
to  believe  him,  was  the  true  founder  of  civil  society.  What 
crimes,  what  wars,  what  murders,  what  misery,  and  what 
horrors  would  have  been  spared  the  human  race  if  some  one, 
pulling  up  the  landmark  and  filling  up  the  ditch,  had  cried  out 
to  his  fellows  :  Be  wary  of  that  impostor,  you  are  lost  if  you 
forget  that  no  one  has  the  right  to  the  ground,  and  that  its  fruits 
are  the  property  of  all !  " 

"The  ^deputies  of  the  people  are  not,  nor  can  they  be,  its 
representatives ;  they  are  simply  its  commissioners,  and  can 
establish  no  final  compact.  Every  law  not  ratified  by  the 
people  themselves  is  null  and  is  no  law." 

The  new  "Heloise"  of  Rousseau  was  onby  let  out  of  the 
public  libraries  for  an  hour  at  a  time,  and  in  1788,  Marat  was 
to  be  heard  reading  the  "Social  Contract"  of  the  same  author 
in  the  streets  of  Paris  to  enthusiastic  hearers. 

e.     From  Helvetius  and  his  Followers. 

"In  England,  the  people  are  respected;  every  citizen  can 
take  some  part  in  the  management  of  affairs,  and  authors  are 
allowed  to  enlighten  the  public  respecting  its  own  interests." 

Helvetius  taught  that  all  notions  of  duty  and  of  virtue  must 
be  tested  by  their  relation  to  the  senses,  that  everything  we 
have  and  everything  we  are,  we  owe  to  the  external  world.  .  .  . 
Condillac,  in  his  widely-read  work  on  the  "  mind,"  asserts  that 
"  everything  we  know  is  the  result  of  sensation  .  .  .  and  that  to 
nature  we  owe  all  of  our  knowledge." 

"  To  preserve  one's  self,  to  be  happy,  is  instinct,  right,  and 
duty." 

"  But,  to  be  happy,  contribute  to  the  happiness  of  others :  if 


MODERN   EUROPE.  473 

you  wish  them  to  be  useful  to  you,  be  useful  to  them.  ..." 
"Be  good,  because  goodness  links  hearts  together;  be  gentle, 
because  gentleness  wins  affection  ;  ...  be  citizens,  because 
a  country  is  necessary  to  ensure  your  safety  and  well-being." 

/.     From  Taine. 

"  A  small  temple  to  Friendship  is  erected  in  a  park.  A  little 
altar  to  Benevolence  is  set  up  in  a  private  closet.  Dresses 
a  la  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  are  worn  analogous  to  the  princi- 
ples of  that  author.  Headdresses  are  selected  with  puffs  au 
sentiment,  in  which  one  may  place  the  portrait  of  one's  daughter, 
mother,  canary,  or  dog,  the  whole  garnished  with  the  hair  of 
one's  father  or  intimate  friend." 

"  The  queen  arranges  a  village  for  herself  at  the  Trianon, 
where,  dressed  in  a  frock  of  white  cambric  muslin  and  a  gauze 
neck-handkerchief,  and  with  a  straw  hat,  she  fishes  in  the  lake 
and  sees  her  cows  milked." 

"The  Duchess  of  Bourbon  goes  out  early  in  the  morn- 
ing incognito  to  bestow  alms,  and  to  see  the  poor  in  their 
garrets." 

"  When  a  society-author  reads  his  work  in  a  drawing-room, 
fashion  requires  that  the  company  should  utter  exclamations 
and  sob." 

"  Bachaumont,  in  1762,  notices  a  deluge  of  pamphlets,  tracts, 
and  political  discussions,  a  rage  for  arguing  on  financial  and 
government  matters."  As  the  Revolution  approaches,  "  agri- 
culture, economy,  reform,  philosophy,"  writes  Wai  pole,  "  are 
the  style,  even  at  the  court."  Another  contemporary  writes  :  — 

"The  exiled  parliaments  are  studying  public  rights  at  their 
sources,  and  conferring  together  on  them." 

STUDY   ON    THOUGHT  AND    FEELING    UNDER    "OLD    REGIME." 

What  ideas  were  evidently  abroad  in  regard  to  the  relation  between 
loyalty  to  the  king  and  to  religion  ?  The  relation  between  the  king 
and  the  law?  The  king  and  property?  What  historic  origin  for 
each  of  these  ideas  ?  What  faults  do  such  ideas  cultivate  ?  What 


474  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

reason  fora  severe  censorship  of  men  like  Voltaire  and  Rousseau'! 
How  were  their  ideas  and  those  of  their  contemporaries  dangerous  to 
the  "  Old  Regime  "  ?  Was  the  feeling  of  the  noble  and  rich  for  the 
poor  a  fashionable  sentiment  or  a  sincere  sympathy?  Prove  it. 
What  trace  of  English  influence  on  French  thought?  Find  other 
traces  in  the  general  history  of  the  period.  What  thoroughly  modern 
ideas  do  you  find  in  these  extracts  ?  What  ideas  that  are  still  con- 
sidered dangerous  ?  What  excuse  for  these  dangerous  ideas  to  be 
found  in  the  "  Old  Regime  "  ?  What  facts  prove  the  power  of  Vol- 
taire? Of  Rousseau?  What  spirit  appears  in  the  extracts  from 
Rousseau?  What  do  Helvetius  and  his  followers  make  the  founda- 
tion of  right-doing  ?  What  danger  in  this  ? 

In  General.  —  Why  was  thoughtfulness  dangerous  to  the  "  Old 
Regime"?  What  great  difficulties  in  the  way  of  reform?  What 
special  difficulty  in  the  peasant  class  ?  How  did  the  badness  of  the 
French  roads  affect  the  ease  of  reform  ?  In  what  ways  did  the  people 
need  Liberty,  Fraternity,  Equality  ?  What  force  in  the  motto  chosen 
for  this  study  (p.  438)  ? 


II.  THE  FIRST  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  THE  WARS 
OF  NAPOLEON.  STATES-GENERAL  OF  1789  TO  CON- 
GRESS OF  VIENNA,  1815. 

"  For  I  the  Lord  thy  God  am  a  jealous  God,  visiting  the  iniquity  of 
the  fathers  upon  the  children  unto  the  third  and  fourth  generation."  — 

EXODUS. 
"The  mills  of  God  grind  slowly,  but  they  grind  exceeding  small." 

Chief  contemporary  and  original  sources  of  history :  the 
reports  and  the  petitions  of  departments  sent  up  to  the 
States-General  of  1789 ;  files  of  the  "  Moniteur,"  the  lead- 
ing newspaper  of  Paris,  and  of  other  contemporary  jour 
nals;  private  letters  and  diaries;  state  papers  as  before; 
official  and  private  correspondence  of  Napoleon,  Stein, 
Metternich  and  their  official  contemporaries ;  the  Annual 
Register ;  contemporary  literature. 


MODERN    EUROPE.  475 

Chief  historians  accessible  in  English,  in  general,  as  for 
D ;  special  for  the  period,  the  histories  of  modern  Europe, 
by  Fyffe  and  Schlosser ;  histories  of  French  Revolution, 
by  Von  Sybel,  De  Tocqueville,  Mignet,  Carlyle ;  Seeley's 
Life  and  Times  of  Stein,  Lanfrey's  Napoleon. 

1.   Chronological   Summary   of  Leading   Events, 
1789-1799. 

The  French  government  (Lewis  XVI.  and  his 
ministers)  being  unable  to  raise  money,  and  find- 
ing itself  in  other  difficulties,  calls  together  the 
States-General ;  this  assembly  naming  itself  the  National 
Assembly,  demands  the  reform  of  many  abuses,  and  takes 
an  oath  ( Oath  of  the  Tennis-court)  not  to  separate  until  it 
has  given  France  a  new  constitution ;  royal  troops  are 
collected  near  Paris,  as  the  Parisians  suspect,  with  the 
design  of  forcibly  dissolving  the  assembly,  or  of  coercing 
its  measures.  The  citizens  thereupon  storm  the  Bastille, 
the  royal  prison  where  the  government  has  long  disposed 
at  will  of  its  enemies,  and  utterly  destroy  it;  they  form 
themselves  into  a  "  National  Guard"  under  the  command 
of  Lafayette,  in  order  to  protect  the  National  Assembly; 
other  cities  follow  the  example  of  Paris ;  the  peasants  in 
the  provinces  revolt  against  the  nobles,  recklessly  burning 
and  destroying,  especially  title-deeds  of  land  and  all  papers 
relating  to  feudal  tenure ;  many  nobles  leave  the  country 
(Emigrants);  on  the  night  of  Aug.  4,  1789,  the  nobles 
in  the  Assembly  surrender  all  their  feudal  rights  and  priv- 
ileges. The  Paris  mob,  accompanied  by  the  national  guard, 
compel  the  king  and  the  National  Assembly  to  come  from 
Versailles  to  Paris ;  a  constitution  is  offered  to  the  king 
which  demands  that  a  representative  assembly  shall  form 
part  of  the  government;  this  assembly  is  to  have  the 


476  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

power  of  making  laws  and  voting  taxes,  and  neither  wai 
nor  peace  are  to  be  declared  without  its  consent.  The 
property  of  the  clergy  is  confiscated  to  the  use  of  the  state, 
which  in  turn  agrees  to  support  them.  The  king  accepts 
the  constitution,  but  endeavors  secretly  to  leave  France. 
The  Parisians,  arresting  him  on  the  way,  and  suspecting 
him  of  an  alliance  with  other  European  monarchs  to 
put  down  the  revolution  by  force  of  arms,  bring  the 
royal  family  back  to  Paris  and  set  a  close  watch  upon 
them. 

Austria  and  Prussia  now  demand  of  France  satisfaction 
for  the  German  princes  who  have  lost  lands  in  Elsass  and 
Lorraine  through  international  treaties ;  satisfaction  to  the 
pope  for  the  loss  of  Avignon,  and  the  repression  of  revo- 
lutionary movements  calculated  to  disturb  other  states. 
France  answers  by  a  declaration  of  war,  and  sends  out 
three  armies  to  the  Rhine-frontier.  Their  ill-success  is 
attributed  to  treachery  at  home ;  the  king  and  the  "  emi- 
grants "  are  believed  to  be  the  instigating  cause  of 
foreign  attack  and  domestic  failure.  The  mob  there- 
upon storms  the  Tuileries,  and  imprisons  the  king  (Aug. 
10,  1792). 

All  resident  nobles  and  all  suspected  of  sympathizing 
either  with  king  or  emigrants  are  imprisoned  or  massacred 
(September  massacres)  by  the  Parisian  mob,  under  the 
direction  of  Danton.  These  massacres  include  even  con- 
stitutionalists who  defend  the  constitution  signed  by  Lewis 
XVI.  Sept.  21, 1792,  France  is  declared  a  REPUBLIC,  and 
offers  her  aid  to  all  peoples  who  wish  to  overthrow  the 
"  Old  Regime." 

Owing  to  imprisonment,  emigration,  and  mas- 
sacre, the  governing  power  falls  largely  into  the 
hands  of  the  Parisian  mob  and  their  armed  sup- 
port, that  is,  into  the  hands  of  men,  poor,  ignorant,  and 


MODERN   EUROPE.  477 

inexperienced.  War  on  the  republic  continues  without; 
on  the  pretext  of  guarding  the  revolution  from  all  treach- 
ery at  home,  assassination  and  imprisonment  are  still  the 
order  of  the  day  within ;  Jan.  21,  1793,  the  king  is  con- 
demned and  executed.  England,  Holland,  Spain,  and  the 
ernperor  join  in  alliance  against  the  French  Republic; 
the  peasants  in  La  VendSe  declare  against  the  revolution, 
and  rise  in  stubborn  revolt ;  the  violent  and  more  moder- 
ate parties  of  Paris  are  in  conflict;  the  more  violent  and 
ignorant  by  force  of  mob-rule  and  terrorism  win  the  lead, 
establish  a  "  Committee  of  Public  Safety,"  by  which  the 
more  moderate  revolutionists  (&irondi9tt)  are  arrested 
and  imprisoned. 

Reign  of  Terror.  —  Robespierre,  one  of  the 
"  Committee  of  Public  Safety,"  and  extreme 
in  his  views  of  the  necessity  of  the  imprisonment 
and  assassination  of  all  who  do  not  sympathize  with  the 
most  radical  revolutionary  ideas,  rules  France  by  commit- 
tees, established  throughout  the  country,  with  power  to 
watch,  arrest,  and  execute  without  trial  all  suspected  per- 
sons ;  imprisonment  and  assassination  are  continuous,  in- 
creasing in  violence  with  the  news  of  defeat  all  along  the 
frontier.  In  Nantes  alone  15,000  are  put  to  death  in  three 
months  by  a  single  tribunal;  Marie  Antoinette,  the  queen, 
is  now  executed ;  soon  follows  the  execution  of  the  more 
moderate  republican  leaders  ( Girondists*) ;  the  guillotine 
is  the  strong  arm  of  the  law.  The  Convention  declares 
the  worship  of  God  abolished  and  that  of  Reason  estab- 
lished. 

Continued  defeat  abroad ;  Robespierre  procures  the 
condemnation  of  his  enemies  in  the  Convention;  demands 
and  procures  a  decree  abolishing  the  worship  of  Reason 
and  acknowledging  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being;  fes- 
tivals for  his  worship  are  proclaimed,  Robespierre  acting 


478  STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    HISTORY. 

as  high  priest;  enormous  increase  of  executions  in  all 
classes,  of  men  suspected  by  Robespierre  of  interference 
in  the  revolution.  All  parties  finally  combine  suddenly 
against  Robespierre,  who  is  condemned  and  executed  by 
his  own  former  supporters. 

Reaction.  —  More  moderate  councils  prevail  in 
Paris,  and  many  emigrants  return;  the  French 
Republic  is  successful  on  the  frontier;  Prus- 
sia makes  peace  with  her,  and  Spain  soon  follows.  A 
new  Constitution  is  adopted,  which  gives  the  executive 
power  to  a  DIRECTORY  of  five,  and  legislative  power  to 
two  representative  chambers,  a  Council  of  Elders  and  a 
Council  of  Five  Hundred.  The  royalists  now  return  to 
Paris,  and  begin  to  instigate  revolt  against  this  constitu- 
tion and  the  existing  government.  The  Convention  calls 
to  its  aid  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE,  who,  by  his  admirable 
management  of  its  armed  forces,  is  able  effectively  to  guard 
it ;  thus  the  Directory  is  established. 

The  Directory.  —  France  and  Austria  being 
still  at  war,  Napoleon  is  sent  to  command  the 
troops  on  the  Italian  frontier ;  he  compels  the 
king  of  Sardinia  to  cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France ;  he 
conquers  Lombardy,  and  gains  the  cession  of  North  Italian 
territory  from  the  pope. 

France  declares  war  on  Venice,  where  she  abolishes  the 
aristocratic  government  and  proclaims  a  republic;  she 
forms  North  Italy  into  a  Cisalpine  Republic  under  French 
protection.  France  and  Austria  come  to  terms,  and  sign 
the  peace  of  Campo  Formio ;  the  Belgian  provinces  (Aus- 
trian Netherlands)  are  surrendered  to  France;  Venice  goes 
to  Austria,  who  agrees  to  recognize  the  Cisalpine  Republic. 
By  secret  articles,  Austria  agrees  to  the  cession  of  the  west 
bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France,  while  France  is  to  use  her 
influence  to  gain  new  lands  for  Austria  from  Austria's 


MODERN   EUROPE.  479 

nearest  neighbors;  the  navigation  of  the  Rhine  is  to  be 
equally  free  to  France  arid  Germany. 

The  French  occupy  Rome,  proclaim  the  Roman  Repub- 
lic, and  take  the  pope  captive ;  they  enter  Switzerland, 
proclaim  it  a  Helvetic  Republic,  and  annex  Geneva  to 
France.  Bonaparte  sails  for  Egypt,  intending  thence  to 
attack  the  Indian  possessions  of  England;  after  winning 
the  "  Battle  of  the  Pyramids,"  he  takes  Cairo ;  but  the 
French  fleet  is  destroyed  by  a  British  squadron  under 
Nelson  at  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  and  the  expedition  is,  on 
the  whole,  unsuccessful.  Napoleon  suddenly  returns  from 
Egypt,  and  finding  the  Directory  ineffective  and  in  confu- 
sion, helps  overthrow  it,  and  establishes  a  government 
according  to  a  fourth  constitution  (of  the  year  FZZZ).  By 
this  constitution,  Bonaparte  is  first  Consul  of  the  Republic, 
and  entrusted  with  its  executive  power;  eighty  elected 
senators  appoint,  from  names  selected  by  popular  election, 
men  for  the  two  legislative  chambers ;  one  of  these  cham- 
bers, the  tribunate,  discusses  the  proposals  of  the  Consul 
without  voting ;  the  other,  the  legislative  chamber,  votes 
without  discussing.  France  is  divided  into  prefectures, 
through  which  the  law  is  equally  and  uniformly  adminis- 
tered according  to  the  '•'•Code  Napoleon." 

STUDY   ON    I. 

What  reasonable  cause  do  you  find  in  the  "  Old  Regime  "  in  France 
for  each  of  the  following  events  from  1789  to  Aug.  10,  1792  :  —  The 
"Oath  of  the  Tennis-court"?  The  formation  of  a  national  guard? 
The  destruction  of  title-deeds  in  the  country?  The  demand  for  a 
constitution  signed  by  the  king  ?  The  confiscation  of  Church  prop-* 
erty?  The  suspicion  of  a  league  between  Lewis  and  other  kings? 
The  cruelty  of  the  Parisian  mob?  The  idea  that  to  kill  the  king  is 
to  strike  the  most  decisive  blow  at  the  "  Old  Regime  "  ?  The  declara- 
tion of  the  worship  of  Reason? 

Name  three  facts  which  prove  the  inherent  weakness  of  the  "  Old 


480  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Regime "  at  the  opening  of  the  Revolution.  If  the  body  of  the 
people  had  approved  of  it,  how  could  it  have  met  revolt?  What 
do  the  demands  of  the  first  constitution  offered  to  Lewis  XVI. 
tell  us  of  the  wrongs  felt  by  France?  How  would  the  attacks  of 
foreign  powers  affect  French  patriotism?  How  affect  the  sympathy 
with  the  Revolution  ? 

From  Sept.,  1792,  to  July,  1794,  France  is  named  a  republic ;  prove 
from  the  events  of  the  time  that  this  government  was  a  despotism. 
In  what  two  forms  does  this  despotism  appear?  How  is  it  supported  ? 
Who  is  to  blame  for  it  ?  What  forces  the  Directory  to  employ  Bona- 
parte ?  In  proclaiming  this  or  that  country  a  republic,  what  republi- 
can principle  does  France  violate  ? 

How  does  the  constitution  of  the  year  VIII.  differ  from  that  of 
the  "  Old  Regime  "  ?  What  positive  blessings  does  the  rule  of  Napo- 
leon bring  to  France?  What  resemblance  between  Napoleon  and 
Cromwell?  What  solid  results  has  the  Revolution  accomplished? 
How  far  has  it  been  a  political  and  how  far  a  social  revolution? 
What  is  the  force  of  each  of  the  mottoes  on  p.  474? 


2.   Chronological  Summary  of  Leading   Events, 
1799-1815. 

Foreign  war  continues ;  the  /Second  Coalition 
of  Russia,  Austria,  Great  Britain,  and  lesser 
powers  is  formed  against  Napoleon ;  they  plan 
to  drive  him  from  Belgium,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and 
Italy.  Napoleon,  having  returned  from  Egypt,  crosses  the 
Alps  by  the  Great  St.  Bernard,  and  defeats  the  allies  at 
Marengo.  In  1801  the  peace  of  LuneVille  is  signed.  This 
peace  confirms  France  in  the  possession  of  Netherlands, 
and  gives  her  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine ;  gives  Tuscany 
to  a  younger  branch  of  the  House  of  Austria ;  recognizes 
the  Batavian  (Dutch),  Helvetian  (Swiss),  and  Cisalpine 
Republics.  Spain  gives  Louisiana  to  France. 

France  is  re-organized  by  Napoleon ;  the  priests  and  the 
bishops  are  to  be  appointed  and  supported  by  the  govern- 
ment ;  education  is  organized  on  a  uniform  basis  and  sup- 


MODERN   EUROPE.  481 

ported  by  the  state.  —  France  and  Great  Britain  make 
peace.  —  Napoleon  is  now  proclaimed  hereditary  emperor 
of  France  by  the  tribunate  and  senate ;  the  people  through- 
out France  confirm  his  title  by  an  almost  unanimous 
popular  election  (plebiscite),  and  he  is  crowned  by  the 
pope  (1804). 

Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria,  Sweden,  con- 
tinue war  against  France,  so  as  to  reduce  her 
power  more  nearly  to  a  level  with  their  own. 
The  British  naval  victory  of  Nelson  at  Trafalgar  (1805) 
breaks  the  power  of  the  French  fleet.  At  Austeiiitz  (the 
battle  of  three  emperors)  Napoleon  defeats  Austria  and 
Russia,  and  concludes  a  peace  with  Austria,  by  which 
he  gains  large  Italian  possessions  and  is  recognized  as 
King  of  Italy.  He  gives  Naples  to  one  of  his  brothers, 
and  Holland  to  another,  giving  each  the  royal  title.  The 
smaller  German  princes  form  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  under  the  protectorate  of  Napoleon.  The  Emperor 
Francis,  keeping  the  title  of  emperor  for  his  hereditary 
Austrian  estates,  abdicates  the  crown  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  which  now  comes  to  an  end  (1806). 

Prussia  and  Russia  make  war  on  Napoleon, 
but  are  defeated  at  Jena  and  elsewhere.  The 
peace  of  Tilsit,  dictated  by  Napoleon,  confirms 
the  power  and  the  titles  of  himself  and  his  brothers,  gives 
him  for  free  disposal  all  lands  between  the  Rhine  and 
the  Elbe,  and  extorts  from  Prussia  the  promise  not  to 
keep  a  standing  army  of  more  than  42,000  men. 

One  of  the  brothers  of  Napoleon  is  declared  king  of 
Spain ;  the  Spaniards  rise  in  revolt  in  defence  of  their 
national  king.  They  are  aided  by  the  British,  and  prove 
a  serious  barrier  to  the  Napoleonic  advance.  Austria 
endeavors  to  free  Germany  from  his  power,  but  is  disas*- 
trously  defeated  at  Wagram,  and  compelled  to  sign  the 


MODERN   EUROPE.  483 

peace  of  Vienna  ceding  32,000  square  miles  to  Napoleon 
and  his  allies.  War  between  Russia  and  Napoleon,  the 
latter  now  having  as  allies  Austria  and  Prussia.  Napoleon 
invades  Russia  and  occupies  Moscow ;  Russian  patriots 
burn  it,  and  Napoleon  retreats;  cold,  famine,  and  continual 
attacks  from  Russian  troops  and  Cossacks  disorganize  his 
army,  and  cost  him  at  least  300,000  lives. 

Prussia  and  Russia,  joined  by  Sweden  and  Austria,  unite 
against  Napoleon  in  the  "  War  of  Liberation  " ;  the  French 
are  driven  back ;  the  allies  enter  Paris  itself  in  triumph, 
and  the  French  senate  are  compelled  to  declare  that 
Napoleon  has  forfeited  the  throne.  He  abdicates,  and  is 
banished  to  Elba.  Lewis  XVIII.  is  declared  king  of 
France,  which  he  is  to  rule  according  to  a  constitution 
somewhat  imitating  that  of  England,  but  with  too  many 
limitations  to  be  satisfactory.  Napoleon,  hearing  of  the 
discontent  of  France,  returns,  is  received  with  enthusiasm 
by  army  and  people,  and  enters  Paris  in  triumph.  King 
Lewis  flees  to  Ghent,  and  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  pro- 
claim a  "ban"  against  Napoleon,  and  raise  great  armies  to 
defeat  him.  This  final  attack  upon  his  power  ends  in  the 
battle  of  Waterloo  (1815),  a  thorough  defeat  for  the 
emperor,  who  is  banished  as  prisoner  of  war  to  St.  Helena, 
where  he  dies  in  exile.  The  allied  monarchs  now  enter 
Paris,  and  again  reinstate  Lewis  XVIII.  as  king  of  the 
French.  The  monarchs  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia 
now  form  the  "Holy  Alliance"  in  order  to  defend  the 
established  order  in  morality,  religion,  government.  The 
affairs  of  Europe  are  settled  at  the  CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA, 
by  the  Pentarchy  of  Great  Powers  (England,  France, 
Austria,  Prussia,  Russia)  acting  through  their  ministers, 
prominent  of  whom  are  Metternich,  Wellington,  Talley- 
rand. The  chief  points  of  settlement  are  as  follows:  — 

Austria  receives  Lombardy  and  Venice,  and  Prussia  re- 


484  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

ceives  various  German  territories ;  the  states  of  Germany 
form  a  confederacy  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  empire ; 
Holland  and  the  Austrian  Netherlands  are  to  form  a  king- 
dom of  the  Netherlands.  The  Partition  of  Poland  between 
Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria  is  confirmed.1  The  old  royal 
dynasties  are  restored  to  the  various  Italian  states  and  to 
Spain. 

STUDY  ON  2. 

What  domestic  and  foreign  necessity  has  France  for  Napoleon  ? 
What  two  reasons  have  the  monarchs  of  Europe  for  their  fear  of 
.Napoleon  ?  During  the  Napoleonic  wars  what  natural  boundary  does 
France  regain?  When  has  she  had  this  boundary  before?  What 
republican  principle  acknowledged  by  the  elevation  of  Napoleon? 
By  what  acts  does  he  violate  republican  principles  ?  What  supports 
the  Napoleonic  power  in  France?  The-  dominion  of  Napoleon  in 
1810  (see  map)  is  almost  identical  with  the  dominion  of  what  former 
French  ruler?  When  and  with  whom  did  the  title  of  Emperor,  which 
comes  to  an  end  in  1806,  originate?  What  countries  of  modern 
Europe  have  been  formed  from  the  "  Holy  Roman  Empire  "  ?  What 
feeling  calls  the  Spaniards  to  war  against  Napoleon  ?  Where  next 
does  he  meet  the  same  enemy  to  his  advance  ?  What  is  the  evident 
reason  for  the  temporary  alliances  of  Austria  and  Prussia  with  Napo- 
leon? Napoleon  banished,  why  do  the  European  monarchs  feel  it 
necessary  to  form  the  "  Holy  Alliance  "  ?  Is  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
representative  of  the  "  Old  Regime  "  or  of  the  Revolution  ?  Prove  it. 

1  Poland  suffered  three  partitions  among  these  powers,  —  those  of 
1772,  1793,  and  1795.  The  causes  leading  to  its  division  may  be  seen  in 
the  following  diplomatic  statement  on  the  part  of  Russia  :  — 

"  Should  Poland  be  firmly  and  lastingly  united  to  Saxony,  a  power  of 
the  first  rank  will  arise,  and  one  which  will  be  able  to  exercise  the  most 
sensible  pressure  upon  each  of  its  neighbours.  We  are  greatly  concerned 
in  this,  in  consequence  of  the  extension  of  our  Polish  frontier ;  and  Prussia 
is  no  less  so,  from  the  inevitable  increase  which  would  ensue  of  Saxon 
influence  in  the  German  Empire.  We  therefore  suggest  that  Prussia, 
Austria,  and  Russia  should  come  to  an  intimate  understanding  with  one 
another  on  this  most  important  subject." 

Ostermann  added  "  that  tbe  question  lay  entirely  with  the  three  powers, 
that  if  they  were  agreed,  they  might  laugh  at  the  rest  of  the  world." 


486  STUDIES  LN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

3.   Special   Study  of  the   Prussian   Revolution   and  the 
Prussian  Leadership  in  the  "  War  of  Liberation."1 

0.   Prussia  at  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit. 

In  1806  Germany  falls  into  three  chief  divisions,  —  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  a  union  of  German  states 
under  the  lead  of  Napoleon ;  the  empire  of  Austria ;  the 
kingdom  of  Prussia  (see  map,  p.  482).  By  the  treaty 
of  Tilsit,  Prussia  accedes  to  the  following  special  terms 
from  Napoleon :  the  loss  of  nearly  half  her  territory, 
which  is  parcelled  out  to  various  powers;  the  payment 
of  $28,000,000,  secured,  meanwhile,  by  French  occupa- 
tion of  her  fortresses,  the  garrisons  to  be  supported  at 
Prussian  expense ;  the  reduction  of  her  army  to  42,000 
men. 

The  organization  of  the  Prussian  state  is  that  of  the 
"Old  Regime":  an  absolute  rule  of  the  king  and  his 
favorites,  uninfluenced  by  any  popular  assemblies ;  three 
fixed,  hereditary  classes  among  the  people,  —  nobles,  citi- 
zens, serfs.  Furthermore,  the  land,  like  the  people,  is 
divided  into  noble-land,  citizen-land,  serf-land ;  nor  can  it 
either  be  given  or  sold  from  one  class  to  another.  Thus 
runs  the  law  of  Frederick  the  Great :  "  The  peasantry 
can  not  alienate  a  field,  mortgage  it,  cultivate  it  differ- 
ently, change  their  occupation,  or  marry,  without  their 
lord's  permission.  If  they  leave  his  estate,  he  can  pursue 
them  in  every  direction  and  bring  them  back  by  force. 
He  has  the  right  of  watching  over  their  private  life,  and 
chastizes  them  if  they  are  drunk  or  lazy.  When  young, 
they  serve  for  years  as  servants  in  his  mansion ;  as 
cultivators,  they  owe  him  corv£es" 

As  in  France,  the  king  is  supposed  "  to  live  of  his  own," 

1  Throughout  this  study,  I  wish  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to 
Prof.  Seeley's  Lift  and  Times  of  Stein. 


MODERN  EUROPE.  487 

the  nobles  are  free  from  taxes,  and  in  a  crisis  such  as  this 
of  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  there  is  no  constitutional  way  of 
aiding  the  king  by  national  taxes.  The  fjulk  of  the  army 
is  composed  of  serfs  forced  into  service,  for  whom  there  is 
no  promotion,  the  officers  being  nobles,  and  nobles  alone. 
Military  punishments  are  degrading,  and  there  is  no  uni- 
formity in  the  demand  for  service,  some  districts  of  Prussia 
being  even  freed  from  furnishing  troops. 

Meanwhile,  the  people  are  pervaded  by  the  principles  of 
the  French  Revolution,  of  which  Napoleon  appears  to  the 
popular  mind  as  the  personified  leader. 

b.   Prussia  from  Tilsit  to  the  War  of  Liberation. 

In  order  to  meet  the  difficulties  of  the  above  situation, 
and  render  Prussia  fit  to  meet  Napoleon,  STEIN,  the  prime 
minister  of  the  Prussian  king,  and  the  statesmen  associated 
with  him  propose  and  carry  out  the  following  reforms : 
free  trade  in  land,  that  is,  the  peasant,  noble,  or  citizen 
may  buy  or  sell  any  sort  of  landed  estate,  whether  noble, 
citizen,  or  peasant  land ;  — free  choice  of  occupation ; 
thus  the  noble  or  the  peasant  may  become  a  trader  or 
an  artisan ;  abolition  of  serfdom  (Emancipating  Edict 
of  1807).  Furthermore,  all  Prussians  without  distinc- 
tion of  rank  are  to  serve  in  the  army  and  to  be  the  armed 
defenders  of  their  state;  disgraceful  corporal  punishment 
is  to  be  abolished,  and  promotion  to  depend  on  merit 
alone. 

In  1808  Napoleon  enters  Spain,  and  issues  a  manifesto 
opening  as  follows,  with  his  titles:  "Napoleon,  by  the 
Grace  of  God,  Emperor  of  the  French,  King  of  Italy, 
'Protector  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine."  He  is  met 
by  an  uprising  of  the  Spanish  people,  whose  feeling  is 
expressed  by  the  following  extracts  from  a  Spanish  pam- 
phlet of  the  time :  "  Yes !  Napoleon,  that  is,  Napodragon, 


488  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTOKY. 

Apollyon,  Ruler  of  the  Abyss,  King  of  the  monsters  of 
hell,  heretics,  and  heretic  princes,  Abominable  Beast,  Pro- 
tector, Head  and  Soul  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine, 
that  is,  of  the  Seven  Heads  and  Ten  Horns  of  the  Beast 
which  bear  blasphemies  against  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
Church,  against  God  and  the  Saints.  That  is  the  body 
of  the  Beast,  and  Napoleon  is  the  head."  Napoleon  had 
promised  them  reform,  to  which  they  answer :  "  You  will 
bring  us  a  Calvinist  reform,  to  introduce  the  innovations  of 
the  Protestants,  as  your  Ministers,  Senators,  etc.,  are  mostly 
of  this  sect,  or  else  apostates,  atheists,  and  Jews.  .  .  ." 
This  popular  insurrection  fails,  but  causes  Napoleon  such 
serious  difficulty  that  Stein,  watching  from  Prussia,  writes 
thus  of  it :  "  Affairs  in  Spain  make  a  deep  impression ; 
they  prove  what  one  should  have  seen  long  ago.  It  will 
be  a  good  thing  to  spread  the  news  of  them  cautiously 
among  our  people.  .  .  .  Indignation  grows  day  by  day  in 
Germany.  We  must  encourage  it,  and  seek  men  who  may 
fire  it."  Soon  after,  in  an  official  report  he  writes : 
"  What,  then,  is  to  be  done  ?  Shall  we  submit  or  resist  ? 
We  must  therefore  keep  alive  in  the  nation  the  feeling  of 
discontent  with  this  oppression,  with  our  dependence  on  a 
foreign  nation,  insolent  and  daily  growing  more  frivolous. 
We  must  keep  them  familiar  with  the  thought  of  self- 
help,  of  the  sacrifice  of  life  and  of  property,  which  in 
any  case  will  soon  become  a  possession  and  a  prey  to  the 
ruling  nation.  .  .  ." 

Meanwhile,  in  Berlin  itself,  Fichte  is  delivering  a  most 
popular  course  of  lectures,  afterwards  published  in  book- 
form,  from  which  the  following  extracts  are  taken :  — 

"What,  then,  is  the  spirit  that  can  be  put  at  the  helm  in 
such  a  case  [as  that  in  which  Germany  now  finds  herself]  ?  .  .  . 
What  but  the  consuming  flame  of  the  higher  patriotism,  which 


MODERN  EUROPE.  489 

conceives  the  nation  as  the  embodiment  of  the  Eternal ;  for 
which  the  high-minded  man  devotes  himself  with  joy,  and  the 
low-minded  man  .  .  .  must  be  made  to  devote  him.selt'.  .  .  . 
You  at  least  have  heard  the  Germans  spoken  of  as  one.  You 
have  seen  a  visible  sign  of  their  unity,  an  Empire  and  an  Impe- 
rial Union,  .  .  .  among  you  have  been  heard  from  time  to  time 
voices  that  were  inspired  by  that  higher  patriotism.  Your  suc- 
cessors will  grow  accustomed  to  other  views,  they  will  adopt 
foreign  forms  and  another  current  of  life  and  affairs,  and  how 
long  will  the  time  be  till  no  one  lives  any  longer  who  has  seen 
Germans  or  heard  of  them  ?  " 

Meanwhile,  secret  societies  are  formed  in  Prussia  and 
other  parts  of  Germany,  having  for  their  object  indepen- 
dence of  Napoleon ;  prominent  among  these  are  the 
gymnastic  unions  (Turn-Vereine),  whose  founder,  Jahn, 
has  the  idea  that  the  German  youth  should  be  trained  for 
war  by  strenuous  exercises  in  time  of  peace.  Gradually 
two  strong  parties  grow  up  in  Prussia,  the  policy  of  one 
being  to  conciliate  Napoleon,  that  of  the  other,  to  rid  the 
country  of  everything  French. 

Napoleon  now  demands  of  the  Prussian  king  the  dis- 
missal of  Stein.  Stein,  temporarily  banished,  is  invited 
to  Russia  by  the  czar.  Once  in  St.  Petersburg,  he  bends 
every  energy  to  unite  Russia  with  Prussia  and  with  other 
German  states  against  Napoleon;  to  this  end  he  causes 
proclamations,  pamphlets,  songs  of  a  patriotic  nature,  to 
be  circulated  throughout  the  Prussian  army  and  among 
the  Prussian  people. 

c.    "  War  of  Liberation:' 

In  the  midst  of  these  endeavors  comes  Napoleon's  reverse 
at  Moscow,  and  his  consequent  retreat.  The  czar,  urged 
on  by  Stein,  follows  Napoleon  into  Prussia,  and  declares 
himself  ready  to  free  her  from  the  tyrant  of  Europe.  The 


490  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

king,  bound  to  Napoleon  by  treaty,  is  helpless ;  his  chief 
general  Yorck,  however,  thus  decides  :  "  Our  enemy  only 
gains  time  by  our  delay ;  we  lose  it ;  every  moment  for  us 
is  an  irrevocable  loss.  With  bleeding  heart  I  burst  the 
bond  of  obedience,  and  wage  war  on  my  own  account. 
The  army  wants  war  with  France,  the  people  want  it,  and 
so  does  the  king,  but  the  king  has  no  free  will.  The  army 
must  make  his  will  free."  The  czar,  also,  regarding  the 
Prussian  king  as  under  compulsion,  declares  Stein  provi- 
sional ruler  of  Prussia,  with  power  to  organize  the  people 
for  war.  Stein  calls  together  meetings  of  the  old  Assem- 
blies of  Estates  in  various  provinces,  and  the  people  with 
one  enthusiasm  declare  for  a  "War  of  Liberation,"  and 
in  alliance  with  Austria  and  Russia,  arm  themselves  for 
victory.  For  the  result,  see  2. 

STUDY    ON    3. 

In  order  to  free  herself  from  Napoleon,  what  two  material  forces 
must  Prussia  command?  What  moral  feeling  among  her  people? 
What  in  the  Prussian  organization  stands  directly  in  the  way  of  her 
possessing  each  of  the  two  former  necessities  ?  From  this  point  of 
view,  what  is  the  value  of  each  of  the  reforms  proposed  by  Stein  and 
his  associates  ?  What  parallel  between  these  reforms  and  those  pro- 
posed by  the  French  Revolution  ?  How  far  back  must  we  go  to  find 
the  historic  origin  of  the  three  classes  of  Prussia?  What  reason  for 
the  Prussian  sympathy  with  Napoleon?  What  effect  will  the  Prus- 
sian reforms  have  upon  this  sympathy?  What  feeling  will  be  aroused 
to  counteract  it  ?  What  reason  do  you  now  discover  for  the  intense 
popular  dislike  of  Napoleon  in  Spain?  Why  does  Stein  wish  to 
spread  the  news  of  the  Spanish  insurrection  in  Germany?  What 
power  does  he  perceive  in  it  which  can  be  employed  against  Napo- 
leon? Of  what  value  is  Fichte  to  the  Prussian  Revolution?  Of 
what  value  are  the  secret  societies?  What  do  you  think  of  Jahn's 
idea  ?  What  historic  example  could  he  quote  ?  What  was  Napo- 
leon's opinion  of  Stein's  measures?  How  do  you  know?  What  does 
Stein  evidently  consider  the  greatest  power  he  can  employ  against 
Napoleon?  What  feelings  in  Yorck  prove  the  strongest?  What 


MODERN   EUROPE.  491 

revolutionary  principle  recognized  by  Stein  in  calling  together  the 
old  Prussian  estates?  What  relation  between  the  Prussian  Revolu- 
tion and  the  "  War  of  Liberation "  ?  Was  that  revolution  funda- 
mentally political  or  social  ? 


III.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY,  1815-1880. 
Chief  contemporary  and  original  sources : 

(Fill  these  out  from  your  own  knowledge  and  observation.) 


Chief  historians  accessible  in  English :  In  general,  same 
as  for  D  and  E\  for  special  period,  Schlosser,  Alison, 
Mackenzie,  Fyffe. 

"King  out,  wild  bells,  to  the  wild  sky, 
The  flying  cloud,  the  frosty  light; 

***** 
"  Ring  out  a  slowly  dying  cause, 

And  ancient  forms  of  party  strife; 
King  in  the  nobler  modes  of  life, 
With  sweeter  manners,  purer  laws. 

***** 
"  Ring  out  false  pride  in  place  and  blood, 
The  civic  slander  and  the  spite  ; 
Ring  in  the  love  of  truth  and  right ; 
Ring  in  the  common  love  of  good. 

***** 
"  Ring  in  the  valiant  man  and  free, 
The  larger  heart,  the  kindlier  hand  ; 
Ring  out  the  darkness  of  the  land, 
Ring  in  the  Christ  that  is  to  be."  —  TENNYSON. 

"This  world  means  something  to  the  capable." —  GOETHE. 
"  The  truth  shall  make  you  free."  —  CHRIST. 


492 


STUDIES  IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


1.   Organizations  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

The  organizations  of  the  nineteenth-century  state  may 
be  seen  in  the  following  typical  constitutions :  — 

a.    Constitution  of  Great  Britain,  1880. 


Parts  of  the 
State  in 

War. 

Finance. 

Law. 

Administration. 

a.  Monarch  ; 

Declares 

Supported  by 

Sanctions 

Must  convoke  d  at 

hereditary 

war  and 

a  fixed  regu- 

laws 

least  once  a  year  ; 

king  or 

peace  in 

lar  grant 

passed  by 

dissolves  it  ;  sends 

queen. 

the  name 

from  the 

d  ;  con- 

and receives  am- 

of the  na- 

public 

sulted  by 

bassadors  and 

tion  ;  chief 

revenue. 

b;  may 

other  diplomatic 

of  the  ar- 

propose 

agents;  makes 

my  and 

laws;  has 

alliances  and  com- 

navy, but 

right  of 

mercial  treaties, 

can  main- 

pardon. 

subject  to  consent 

tain  neither 

of  d;  appoints  b. 

in  British 

territory 

without 

consent  of 

d. 

b.  Prime 

Decides  on 

Lays  the 

Proposes 

Chief  of  the  Cabinet 

minister 

measures 

financial 

new  meas- 

bringing their 

(Premier); 

of  war  and 

demands  of 

ures  (bills] 

measures  before  d  ; 

appointed 

peace  in 

the  govern- 

which 

executive  chief   of 

by  the 

council  with 

ment  before 

take  pre- 

the government. 

monarch 

a  and  c, 

db; 

cedence 

from  the 

and  subject 

salaried 

of  other 

most  prom- 

to consent 

official. 

bills  in 

inent  lead- 

of d. 

the  dis- 

ers of  the 

cussions 

dominant 

of  d. 

party  in 

the  House 

of  Com- 

mons ; 

MODERN   EUROPE. 


493 


Parts  of  the 
State  in 

War. 

Finance. 

Law. 

Administration. 

changed 

with 

changes  of 

party 

power. 

c.  Cabinet  ; 

discuss 

'ropose 

Discuss 

Subordinate  execu- 

council of 

and  decide 

taxes  and 

and  for- 

tives in  the  various 

the  minis- 

on course 

the  direction 

mulate 

departments  of 

ters  of  the 

of  action 

of  national 

bills  to  be 

the  government. 

treasury, 

to  be  pro- 

expenditure 

laid  be- 

State, war, 

posed  to 

to  db; 

fore  the 

navy,  etc. 

the  country. 

salaried 

Com- 

(Secreta- 

officials, 

mons. 

ries). 

paid  from 

public 

treasury. 

d.  Parlia- 

ment, com 

posed  of 

da.  House  of 

Give  or  with- 

Propose 

Criticis 

Lords, 

hold  consent 

and  dis- 

spiritual 

to  measures 

cuss,  re- 

and tempo 

of  a,  b,  and 

ject  or 

ral  ;  sitting 

c  (the  govern- 

pass, 

for  life  or 

ment),  which 

bills;  su- 

a term  of 

they  thor- 

preme 

years  ; 

oughly  dis- 

court of 

seats,  here- 

cuss and 

appt  als. 

ditary, 

freely  criti- 

given by 

cise. 

the  mon- 

arch or 

the  vote 

of  nobles, 

or  by  vir- 

tue of  ec- 

clesiasti- 

cal office. 

494 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Parts  of  the 
State  in 

War. 

Finance. 

Law. 

Administration. 

db.  House  of 

Same  as 

Serves  un- 

Proposes 

Criticises. 

Commons; 

above. 

paid  ;  con- 

and dis- 

British 

sents  to  or 

cusses,  re- 

citizens 

rejects 

jects  or 

elected 

financial  de- 

passes, 

from  any 

mands  and 

bills  ; 

class  of 

proposals 

court  of 

people  by 

of  cabinet. 

judgment 

the  popu- 

for min- 

lar suffrage 

isters  and 

of  e. 

high 

officials. 

e.  Citizens; 

Enter  the 

Pay  taxes  to 

Are  equal- 

Elect members  of 

all  born  or 

army  and 

support  the 

ly  judged 

the  House  of  Com- 

naturalized 

navy  as  paid 

govern- 

by same 

mons;  if  they  ex- 

men living 

officers, 

ment. 

laws. 

press  disapproval 

in  Great 

soldiers, 

of  the  course  of 

Britain  and 

and  sailors. 

the  existing  par- 

Ireland, of 

liament  or  premier, 

competent 

the  monarch  dis- 

age and 

solves  Parliament 

mind,  un- 

and  allows  public 

convicted 

opinion  to  express 

of  crimi- 

itself in  a  new 

nal  offen- 

election; enter  the 

ces  or  of 

civil  service  on 

bribery, 

competitive  exami- 

and having 

nation. 

some  prop- 

erty 

interest. 

MODERN   EUROPE. 


495 


&.  Constitution  of  France.  (Dating  from  1876,  and  formed  by 
a  National  Assembly  elected  in  1871,  directly  after  the  close 
of  the  Franco-Prussian  war.) 


Parts  of  the 
State  in 

War. 

Finance. 

Law. 

Administration. 

a.  President; 

Declares 

Paid  for  his 

Proclaims 

Executive  of  the 

chosen 

war,  sub- 

service to 

the  laws 

State;  names  the 

from  any 

ject  to  c 

the  State. 

passed 

cabinet,  dissolves 

class  of 

and  d. 

by  c  and 

c  and  d,  and  con- 

citizens for 

d;  pro- 

vokes special  ses- 

seven years 

poses 

sions  ;  appoints  to 

by  c  and  d  , 

laws 

civil  and  military 

which  c 

office  ;  presides  at 

and  d  dis- 

national solemni- 

cuss, crit- 

ties ;  receives  and 

icise,  re- 

appoints foreign 

ject,  or 

ambassadors  ; 

accept  ; 

makes  treaties 

can  de- 

with foreign  pow- 

mand 

ers,  subject  to  c 

the  re- 

and  d. 

consider- 

ation of 

a  bill; 

grants 

pardon 

1 

to  con- 

1 

victed 

crimi- 

nals. 

b.  Cabinet  of 

Advises  and 

Together 

Advises 

Countersigns  the  acts 

ministers, 

and  con- 

with a,  lay 

and 

of  the  president  ; 

secretaries 

sults. 

the  finan- 

consults. 

sub-executives  in 

of  war, 

cial  needs 

the  various  parts 

State,  etc., 

of  the  gov- 

of the  State. 

similar  to 

ernment 

British 

before  d. 

cabinet. 

496 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Parts  of  the 
State  in 

War. 

Finance. 

Law. 

Administration. 

c.1  Senate, 

Discusses, 

Paid  for  ser- 

Proposes, 

Discusses,  criticises. 

chosen  for 

approves, 

vices  to  the 

discusses, 

adopts,  or  rejects 

a  term  of 

or  disap- 

State. 

and  pass- 

measures offered 

years  from 

proves. 

es  bills; 

by  a  in  regard  to 

citizens  of 

must  re- 

foreign affairs. 

France  and 

ceive 

the  colo- 

financial 

nies,  partly 

measures, 

by  electo- 

such as 

ral  colleges 

taxes, 

composed 

from  d  ; 

of  officials 

judges  in 

and  other 

case  of 

men  locally 

necessity 

eminent  in 

(high 

France  and 

treason) 

the 

a,  minis- 

colonies, 

ters  of 

partly  by 

State, 

d  and  c 

and 

itself. 

others. 

d.1  Chamber 

Approves  or 

Paid  for  ser- 

Proposes, 

Same  as  c, 

of  Depu- 

disap- 

vices to  the 

discusses, 

ties,  chosen 

proves. 

State; 

and 

for  a  term 

passes 

passes 

of  years, 

all  bills  re- 

bills; can 

from 

garding 

call  to 

France  and 

taxes  and 

account 

her  colo-  \ 

expendi- 

a and  the 

nies  by 

ture. 

minis- 

universal 

ters  of 

suffrage 

State. 

of  citizens. 

1  b  and  c  in  joint  session  form  the  National  Assembly,  and  meet  in  this 
body  for  the  revision  of  the  constitution  and  the  nomination  of  the 
president. 


MODERN   EUROPE. 


497 


Parts  of  the 
State  in 

War. 

Finance. 

Law. 

Administration. 

e.  Citizens  ; 

Form  the 

Support  by 

Are  equal- 

Elect deputies  and 

all  born  or 

army  and 

their  taxes 

ly  judged 

manage  local 

adopted 

navy  as 

the  govern- 

by the 

affairs. 

French- 

paid volun- 

ment. 

same 

men,  living 

teers  or 

laws. 

in  France 

conscripts. 

or  her  colo- 

nies, of 

proper  age 

and  sound 

mind,  un- 

convicted 

of  crime. 

c.    Constitution  of  German  Empire,  dating  from  1871  (at  the 
close  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war) . 

The  empire  is  composed  of  German  states  of  various  ranks, 
each  having  its  special  constitution, —  as  the  duchy  of  Brunswick, 
the  republics  of  Bremen,  Lubeck,  and  Hamburg,  the  consti- 
tutional kingdoms  of  Prussia  and  Bavaria.  Each  state  man- 
ages its  own  affairs  according  to  its  own  constitution,  while  the 
business  common  to  all,  as  war,  colonization,  general  trade 
and  commerce,  common  railways,  steamboats,  and  other  means 
of  communication,  is  attended  to  by  the  empire,  whose  organi- 
zation is  as  follows  :  — 


Parts  of  the  Empire 
in 

War. 

Law. 

Administration. 

a.  Emperor, 
hereditary 
monarch 
of  Prussia. 

Declares  war, 
subject  to  d, 
and  concludes 
peace  ;  com- 
mander of  the 

Publishes  laws 
of  the  empire. 

General  executive; 
convokes,  opens, 
dissolves  d  and 
e,  which  must  be 
convoked  annual- 

498 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Parts  of  the  Empire 
in 

War. 

Lam. 

Administration. 

troops  of  the 
empire. 

ly  ;  receives  and 
appoints  foreign 
envoys,  concludes 
alliances  with 

foreign  states, 
subject  to  d  and 

e;  appoints  men 
to  the  military 
and  naval  service 

of  the  empire  ; 
names  the 

chancellor. 

b.  Chancellor  of 
the  empire. 

Proposes  bills  to 
e,  after  consul- 
tation with  a. 

Presides  over  and 
directs  the  delib- 
erations of  d; 

must  counter- 

sign all  measures 
of  a,  and  be 

responsible  for 
them. 

d.  Federal  Coun- 
cil (Bundes- 
rath);  composed 
of  about  sixty 
eminent  offi- 

Approves or  dis- 
approves of 
declaration  of 
war. 

Discusses  and 
passes  on  bills 
offered  by  e  ; 
proposes  meas- 
ures; discusses 

Can  dissolve  e, 
with  consent  of 
a;  holds  states 
responsible  for 
their  mutual  and 

cials,  chosen 

constitutional 

federal  duties  ; 

by  and  repre- 
sentative of 
the  various 
German  states 
(seventeen 
are  from 

measures  ; 
court  of  appeal 
in  case  of  dif- 
ficulties be- 
tween states. 

consent  neces- 
sary to  conclu- 
sion of  foreign 
alliances  relating 
to  general 
interests. 

Prussia.) 

e.  Imperial  par- 
liament (Reichs- 
tag), composed 
of  about  four 

Proposes  and 
discusses  bills, 
which  must  be 
submitted  to 

Consent  necessary 
to  give  validity 
to  treaties  of 
alliance  affecting 

MODERN   EUROPE. 


499 


Parts  of  the  Empire 
in 

War. 

Law. 

Administration. 

hundred  Ger- 

and accepted 

general  German 

man  citizens 

by  a  and  d 

interests. 

chosen  byy*; 

before  they  can 

about  two  hun- 

become laws  of 

dred  and  thirty- 

the  empire. 

six  members 

are  from 

Prussia. 

/.  Citizens;  all 

Serve  in  the 

Judged  and  gov- 

Criticise. 

Germans  living 

army  for  a 

erned  equally 

in  the  German 

term  of  years, 

by  laws  of  the 

empire,  of  suit- 

and always 

empire. 

able  age,  and 

liable  to  mili- 

unconvicted 

tary  service  in 

of  crime. 

case  of  war. 

NOTE.  —  Since  the  government  of  Germany  is  so  highly  localized  by 
states,  each  state  bears  the  expense  of  and  raises  taxes  for  its  own  gov- 
ernment. For  the  empire  there  is  no  regular  system  of  taxation,  and  its 
expenses  are  met  by  the  revenues  from  excise  and  customs-duties,  and 
from  the  postal  and  telegraph  services. 

NOTE.  —  In  all  these  constitutions,  the  proceedings  of 
the  government  and  of  the  legislative  bodies  are  as  public 
as  it  is  thought  the  good  of  the  State  will  allow.  The 
proceedings  of  the  lower  chamber  are  generally  published 
in  the  newspapers  of  the  day.  In  all  of  these  constitu- 
tions, again,  elections  are  decided  and  bills  are  carried 
by  the  votes  of  the  majority. 

STUDY  ON   I. 

a.  How  is  the  power  of  the  monarch  checked  ?  That  of  the  premier  ? 
Of  the  House  of  Commons?  What  parts  of  this  constitution  seem 
unnecessary  ?  What  is  the  historic  origin  of  each  part  ?  Which  part 
is  distinctively  modern ?  What  parts  are  representative?  How  does 
the  fact  that  the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  are  unpaid 


500  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

affect  their  representative  value  ?  Their  independence  ?  Where  does 
responsibility  rest  in  this  constitution  ? 

6.  Compare  the  power  of  the  British  monarch  and  the  French  presi- 
dent. What  necessary  check  to  the  power  of  the  latter  which  the 
former  does  not  feel  ?  How  does  the  relation  of  colonists  to  the  home 
government  differ  in  England  and  France?  Which  strikes  you  as 
the  wiser  arrangement,  and  why?  Which  has  the  most  thoroughly 
representative  government,  England  or  France,  and  why  ?  Supposing 
you  knew  nothing  of  the  French  Revolution,  but  knew  the  organiza- 
tions of  France  under  the  "  Old  Regime  "  and  at  present,  what  great 
political  change  would  you  mark  ?  What  great  social  change  ?  What 
great  religious  change  ? 

c.  What  is  the  leading  state  of  the  German  empire  ?  What  check  is 
felt  by  each  part  of  the  constitution?  To  what  in  the  English  con- 
stitution does  each  part  of  c  correspond?  Each  part  of  6?  What 
types  are  evidently  copied  by  b  and  c  ? 

What  general  difference  between  the  upper  and  lower  Houses  in 
these  constitutions?  What  is  the  bond  of  union  in  the  nineteenth- 
century  state?  By  what  arrangement  does  it  secure  itself  against 
domestic  tyranny  ?  Against  foreign  invasion  ?  What  equality  exists 
within  it  ?  What  does  the  modern  state  owe  to  the  feudal  state  ? 
What  has  it  in  common  with  the  Athenian  and  Roman  republics  ? 
What  difference  between  its  popular  assemblies  and  the  assemblies  of 
mediaeval  estates?  The  popular  assemblies  of  antiquity?  What 
serves  the  purpose  of  the  old  market-place?  What  modern  inventions 
enable  the  large  state  to  be  governed  as  equally  and  as  much  by  the 
whole  people  as  the  little  "  city-state  "  of  antiquity  ?  In  the  modern 
state  by  what  means  must  power  be  gained  or  held?  How  does  the 
army  of  the  modern  state  differ  from  that  of  antiquity?  Of  the 
middle  ages? 

STUDY  ON  OTHER  ORGANIZATIONS  OF  OUR  CENTURY. 

Looking  about  you  here  in  America,  what  new  facts  of  religious 
organization  do  you  see?  Make  a  list  of  all  the  organizations  —  social, 
industrial,  commercial,  educational  —  that  you  can  think  of  or  find 
out  about  which  are  different  from  those  you  have  seen  in  your  studies 
of  previous  history.  For  whose  benefit  are  these  organizations? 
What  do  they  show  the  nineteenth  century  to  be  caring  for  ?  Do  any 
of  them  correspond  with  any  organizations  you  have  met  before? 
What  relation  has  each  of  these  organizations  to  the  State  ? 


MODERN    EUROPE.  501 

2.  General  Summary  of  Leading  Events  of  the  Century. 

a.     International. 

International  congresses  of  European  kings  and 
royal  ministers  called  to  consider  how  to  suppress 
or  manage  revolutionary  movements  in  Naples, 
Spain,  Germany,  and  Piedmont,  which  seem  to  imitate 
the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution;  as  a  result  of 
these  conferences,  the  Italian  uprisings  are  put  down  by 
force  of  Austrian  arms,  and  the  absolute  rule  of  the  vari- 
ous princes  is  restored;  French  armies  are  sent  into  Spain, 
where  they  liberate  the  imprisoned  king  and  restore  him 
to  power,  securing  the  restoration  by  numerous  execu- 
tions; the  teaching  in  the  German  universities  is  super- 
vised, lest  the  professors  inspire  the  students  with  princi- 
ples of  political  liberty. 

The  Greeks  revolt  against  Turkey,  who  calls  Egypt  to 
her  aid;  its  Pasha  invades  and  ravages  Greece;  England, 
Russia,  and  France  interfere  in  her  behalf,  and  drive  the 
Turks  from  the  peninsula  ;  Turkey,  hard  pressed  by  Euro- 
pean powers,  notably  by  Russia,  at  length  consents,  by  the 
treaty  of  Adnanople,  that  Greece  shall  become  an  inde- 
pendent European  power ;  England,  France,  and  Russia 
select  a  Bavarian  prince  for  her  king,  whom  the  Greeks 
accept  as  their  constitutional  monarch. 

War  breaks  out  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands, 
created  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  between  the  Dutch 
Protestants  of  Holland  and  the  Belgian  French-speaking 
Catholics  of  the  old  Austrian  Netherlands.  At  a  London 
conference,  the  Great  Powers  consent  to  the  separation  of 
Holland  and  Belgium,  allowing  the  latter  country  to 
become  an  independent  state,  under  the  rule  of  a  constitu- 
tional king :  thus  arises  the  kingdom  of  Belgium,  1830.  — 
New  Italian  uprisings  in  favor  of  independence  and  con- 
stitutional government  are  suppressed  by  Austrian  arms. 


502  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

—  The  viceroy  of  Egypt  makes  war  on  the  Turkish  sultan, 
but  is  forced  by  the  European  powers  to  make  peace. 

The  Italians,  under  the  leadership  of  the  king 
of  Sardinia,  attempt  to  drive  the  Austrians  out 
of  Northern  Italy ;  they  are  defeated  at  Novara, 
and  the  Austrians  more  firmly  fixed  in  power  than  before. 

—  The  Hungarians  (Magyars),  under  the  lead  of  Kossuth, 
revolt  against  Austria  in  behalf  of  a  local  Hungarian  gov- 
ernment and  a  restoration  of  the  old  Hungarian  constitu- 
tion.    The  Russian  agrees  to  help  the  Austrian  empire, 
and  by  her  aid  the  Hungarian  uprising  is  entirely  sup- 
pressed, its  leaders  executed  or  imprisoned,  and  the  con- 
stitution of  Hungary  is  declared  abolished.  —  The  duchies 
of    Schleswig-Holste.in,   to   the    south    of    Denmark,    are 
proclaimed   annexed    to    Denmark    by   the    Danish   king. 
The  people  of  the  duchies  revolt,  and  are  aided  at  first  by 
the  Germans  and  Prussians;  afterward,  they  fight  alone. 
The  German  confederacy  at  last  enforces  peace,  and  Hoi- 
stein    is   occupied   by   Austrian    troops,  who    deliver   the 
duchy  to  the  Danes  on  condition  that  its  "-rights  shall  be 
respected."     In  1852,  the  Treaty  of  London,  signed  by  the 
five  Great  Powers   (Pentarchy)  and  Sweden,  appoints  a 
single  king  for  Denmark  and  the  duchies,  without  con- 
sulting the  estates  of  the  latter. 

War  of  Russia  against  Turkey  because  the  lat- 
ter refuses  the  former  a  protectorate  over  all  Chris- 
tians of  the  Greek  Church  in  the  Turkish  empire. 
(England,  France,  Sardinia,  ally  themselves  with  Turkey, 
and  the  CRIMEAN  WAR  opens,  —  which  may  be  described 
as  a  war  of  Western  Europe  against  Russia.  Sebastopol, 
in  the  Crimea,  is  the  objective  point  of  attack,  in  order  to 
ruin  the  naval  power  of  Russia  in  the  Black  Sea.  The  war 
ends  with  the  Peace  of  Paris,  in  which  Turkey  agrees  to 
make  her  Christian  subjects  equal  to  the  Mohammedans 


MODERN   EUROPE.  503 

in  their  relations  with  the  State,  while  Russia  foregoes  her 
demand  to  become  their  protector.  Russia  promises  not 
to  establish  arsenals  on  the  Black  Sea  nor  to  keep  more 
ships  there  than  the  Turkish  Porte.  The  following  rules 
of  naval  warfare  are  at  this  time  agreed  upon  by  the  Euro- 
pean powers:  Privateering  is  and  remains  abolished; 
neutral  ships  and  neutral  goods  are  not  liable  to  capture ; 
blockades,  to  be  binding,  must  be  effective. 

France  and  England  join  in  an  expedition 
against  China,  on  account  of  the  latter  country's 
violation  of  the  treaty  with  England.  They 
occupy  Canton,  march  upon  Pekin,  and  force  the  Chinese 
to  agree  to  admit  traders  and  missionaries  into  China, 
and  allow  European  embassies  to  reside  at  Pekin. 

Sardinia,  now  allied  with  France,  once  more  attempts  to 
rid  Northern  Italy  of  the  Austrian ;  wins  the  battles  of 
Magenta  and  Solferino  and  signs  the  Peace  of  Villafranca, 
in  which  Austria  gives  Lombardy  to  Sardinia  (1859). 

Austria  and  Prussia  make  war  on  Denmark  because  her 
king  has  incorporated  Schleswig  with  Denmark;  the  war 
ends  by  a  treaty  in  which  the  king  of  Denmark  renounces 
all  his  rights  to  Schleswig-Holstein  in  favor  of  the  empe- 
ror of  Austria  and  the  king  of  Prussia ;  Austria  occupies 
and  governs  Schleswig,  and  Prussia,  Holstein. 

Disputes  between  Austria  and  Prussia  over  the  manage- 
ment of  Schleswig-Holstein  lead  to  the  Austro-Prussian 
war  of  1866,  in  which  Prussia  receives  the  alliance  of 
Italy  and  the  smaller  states  of  North  Germany,  and  Aus- 
tria is  aided  by  the  stronger  German  states.  The  battle 
of  Sadowa  decides  the  conflict,  and  by  the  terms  of  the 
peace  Austria  consents  to  the  organization  of  a  new 
German  confederation,  from  which  she  shall  be  excluded ; 
Schleswig-Holstein  is  resigned  to  Prussia,  who  also  gains 
other  German  territory  nearly  30,000  square  miles  in 


504  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

extent ;  the  Austrians  yield  their  claims  on  Venice,  which 
joins  itself  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy. 

War  threatens  between  France  and  Prussia  on  account 
of  claims  to  frontier  territory  made  by  Napoleon  III.  A 
conference  is  called  at  London  which  recognizes  Italy  as 
one  of  the  Great  Powers,  and  for  the  present  reconciles 
Prussia  and  France. 

Franco-Prussian   War.  —  A  prince    of  Hohen- 
zollern    is   elected    to    the    Spanish    throne ;    his 

m'      withdrawal   is  demanded  by  France.     After  he 


1870 

TO 


voluntarily  resigns  his  claims,  the  French  emperor 
demands  of  the  Prussian  king  a  promise  "  that  he  will 
never  again  allow  the  candidacy  of  the  prince  for  the 
Spanish  crown."  The  king  will  not  promise,  and  the 
manner  of  his  refusal  displeases  the  emperor,  who  regards 
it  as  an  insult,  and  declares  war  of  France  against  Prussia. 
The  French,  hard  pressed  by  Prussia,  withdraw  their 
troops  from  Rome,  which  declares  itself  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  whose  capital  it  becomes.  The  French 
are  badly  beaten  at  Sedan ;  the  German  armies  march  on 
Paris,  besiege  it,  and  compel  a  peace.  By  its  terms  (Con- 
vention of  Versailles),  France  cedes  Elsass  (Alsace)  and 
German  Lorraine  to  Germany.  Germany  is  now  declared 
an  empire  under  the  leadership  of  Prussia,  whose  king 
takes  the  title  of  GERMAN  EMPEROR. 

The  period  is  marked  by  a  struggle  of  Church 
and  State  in  Prussia,  Switzerland,  Italy,  in  regard 
to  the  functions  of  each  in  regard  to  education, 
marriage,  and  the  appointment  of  clerg}r.  In  Italy,  the 
monasteries  are  dissolved  and  their  property  appropri- 
ated by  the  State ;  in  Switzerland,  a  national  Catholic 
Church  is  formed,  whose  clergy  are  elected  by  the  people  ; 
in  Germany,  marriages  and  the  registration  of  births  and 
deaths  are  made  a  part  of  the  business  of  the  State.  In 


MODEItX   EUROPE. 


505 


Spain,  civil  war  between  republicans  and  two  claimants 
of  the  Spanish  throne,  ends  in  the  restoration  of  a  con- 
stitutional monarchy. 

The  Christian  subjects  of  the  Turkish  Porte 
revolt  against  him  in  behalf  of  religious  tolera- 
tion and  just  taxation.  The  revolt  is  suppressed 
with  great  violence  and  cruelty ;  Russia  once  more  de- 
clares herself  protector  of  the  Greek  Christians,  and 
threatens  war.  The  Powers  hold  a  conference  at  Con- 
stantinople, in  which  they  unsuccessfully  attempt  to  corn- 


1861 


1878 


TURKISH  DOMINION  in  EUROPE,  before  and  afterTREATY  of  BLRLIN, 

W/////////M  =  Turkish-dominion. 


pose  the  existing  difficulties.  The  Porte  being  unwilling 
to  submit  to  their  dictation,  they  leave  Constantinople, 
and  Russia  makes  war  on  Turkey  (Turco-Russian  war, 
1877-78).  The  war  ends  in  the  Peace  of  San  Stefano, 
which  makes  Servia  and  Montenegro  independent,  and 
enlarges  their  boundaries  at  Turkey's  expense  ;  Roumania 
becomes  independent,  while  Bulgaria  remains  tributary  to 
the  Porte,  but  with  a  Christian  prince  and  independent 
administration  and  troops;  the  Porte  promises  reform 


506  STUDIES  IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

within  his  European  lands,  and  agrees  to  give  Russia  large 
parts  of  Armenia  and  some  new  European  territory. 
England  and  Austria,  being  dissatisfied  with  this  treaty, 
threaten  to  make  war  on  Russia;  Germany  mediates  for 
peace,  and  the  Congress  of  Berlin  is  called,  under  the 
presidency  of  Prince  Bismarck,  prime  minister  of  Prussia ; 
the  Peace  of  San  Stefano  is  somewhat  modified  in  favor  of 
Turkey ;  Southern  Bulgaria  is  restored  to  the  immediate 
rule  of  the  sultan,  under  the  name  of  East-Roumelia ; 
Russian  troops  are  to  leave  the  Christian  provinces  within 
a  year ;  Turkey  is  advised  to  cede  a  part  of  Epirus  and 
Thessaly  to  Greece  ;  in  all  the  states  of  the  Turkish  penin- 
sula political  equality  is  to  exist  for  men  of  all  creeds ; 
Austria  is  allowed  military  occupation  and  administra- 
tion of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  The  Porte  delays  to 
deliver  over  the  promised  territories,  and  is  threatened  into 
obedience  by  the  presence  of  a  squadron  sent  by  all  the 
Great  Powers.  A  conference  of  their  ambassadors,  mean- 
while, meeting  at  Constantinople,  persuades  the  sultan  to 
yield  to  Greece  territories  on  her  northern  frontier. 

Russia  threatening  Germany  by  an  alliance  with  France, 
Bismarck  negotiates  a  defensive  alliance  of  Prussia  and 
Austria. 

STUDY  ON  2,  «. 

What  check  is  placed  upon  the  aggressive  tendencies  of  any  great 
power  of  Europe  ?  What  protection  have  the  smaller  states  of  Europe 
against  such  a  fate  as  Poland  suffered  ?  What  are  the  political  units 
of  Europe?  What  bonds  of  unity  exist  within  these  units?  What 
natural  reasons  for  war  between  the  two  parts  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands  ?  What  new  states  have  been  formed  within  our  cen- 
tury? At  whose  expense?  How  far  are  these  true  political  units  of 
the  kind  named  above?  What  true  political  units  exist  still  unre- 
cognized ?  What  tendency  is  shown  in  the  political  congresses,  con- 
ferences, and  treaties  of  this  time  ?  What  do  the  wars  of  our  century 
show  to  be  the  leading  desires  of  the  European  peoples  and  govern- 
ments? What  great  good  has  been  accomplished  by  these  wars? 


1815 


1848. 


MODERN  EUROPE.  507 

What  injustice  appears  in  some  of  them?  What  state  is  Europe 
especially  watchful  of?  Which  of  the  wars  of  this  century  do  you 
regard  as  notably  important  ?  Why  ?  Why  should  Turkey  be  called 
the  "  sick  man  "  ? 

b.   France. 

Lewis  XVIII.  proclaims  a  liberal  constitution, 
but  presently  laws  are  passed  that  restrict  the 
freedom  of  the  press  and  of  elections.  Parties 
arise,  in  favor  of  the  "  Old  Regime,"  in  favor  of  consti- 
tutional monarchy,  in  favor  of  the  Bonapartes,  in  favor 
of  a  republic.  Under  his  successor,  Charles  X.,  the  na- 
tional guard  is  disbanded.  —  Algeria  is  conquered  and 
occupied  by  the  French  (1830).  —  New  elections  take 
place,  which  return  a  liberal  majority  to  the  parliamentary 
chambers ;  the  government  declares  the  elections  illegal, 
restricts  the  right  of  suffrage  to  rich  land-owners,  pro- 
hibits the  publication  of  newspapers  and  pamphlets  with- 
out the  permission  of  the  king.  The  Parisians  revolt,  and 
Thiers  protests;  a  national  guard  is  again  formed,  under 
Lafayette.  Charles  X.  abdicates  and  Louis  Philippe,  of 
the  younger  line  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  (Orleans), 
comes  to  the  throne  ;  he  proclaims  liberal  measures  and 
better  constitutional  government.  His  life  is  attempted 
by  means  of  an  "  infernal  machine,"  and  laws  are  once 
more  passed  restricting  the  liberty  of  the  press. 

Louis  Napoleon,  the  nephew  of  Bonaparte,  tries  to  get 
himself  proclaimed  as  emperor;  still  further  development 
of  parties;  demands  for  reforms  in  elections  and  in  the 
civil  service  rejected  by  the  government  (1848).  Revolu- 
tion, largely  conducted  by  members  of  secret  socialistic  J 
societies.  Louis  Philippe  abdicates,  and  a  republic  is 

1  In  general,  the  aims  of  socialism  are  to  organize  society  in  the  inter- 
ests of  labor  rather  than  capital ;  and  to  substitute  for  the  principle  of 
competition  in  industry  some  form  of  social  and  cooperative  labor. 


508  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTOKY. 

proclaimed.  Louis  Blanc,  a  leading  socialist,  agitates  for 
the  organization  of  labor,  and  public  workshops  are  estab- 
lished at  the  expense  of  the  State,  although  not  in  accord- 
ance with  the  designs  of  Blanc ;  they  are  closed,  and  an 
insurrection  of  laborers  ensues,  which  is  suppressed  by 
the  government  troops  and  the  national  guard.  Louis 
Napoleon  is  elected  president  of  the  republic. 

Louis  Napoleon,  by  a  "  stroke  of  state  "  (coup 
d'£tat  of  Dec.  2,  1851),  causes  the  leaders  of  the 
Republican  and  Orleanist  parties  to  'be  arrested 
and  imprisoned,  dissolves  the  national  assembly,  annuls 
the  constitution,  crushes  the  rising  revolt  of  Paris,  and 
summons  the  whole  people  to  an  election.  They  elect 
Louis  Napoleon  president  of  the  republic  for  ten  years. 
He  banishes  his  most  important  political  enemies,  establishes 
a  constitution  like  that  of  the  First  Empire,  and  restricts 
the  liberty  of  the  press ;  in  the  following  year  he  is  made 
Napoleon  III.,  Emperor  of  the  French,  by  decree  of  the 
senate,  confirmed  by  vote  of  the  whole  people  (plebiscite). 
During  the  siege  of  Paris  the  socialistic  party 
in  Paris  gain  the  upper  hand,  and  hold  rule  for  a 
short  time  under  the  title  of  the  Paris  Commune. 
They  are  aided  by  socialists  from  all  nations.  The  na- 
tional troops  attack  and  conquer  them ;  40,000  or  50,000 
socialists  are  arrested,  and  their  leaders  are  shot  or  trans- 
ported. Meanwhile,  after  the  defeats  of  Sedan  and  the 
fall  of  Paris  into  the  hands  of  the  Prussians,  France  is 
proclaimed  for  the  third  time  a  republic,  with  Thiers  for 
its  first  president. 

Owing  to  a  hostile  combination  of  the  various 
monarchical  parties,  Thiers  is  forced  to  resign, 
and  MacMahon  is  chosen  president  by  the  National 
Assembly.  The  long  discussions  over  the  constitution  end 
in  1875,  with  the  form  given  on  p.  495.  The  president, 


MODERN   EUROPE.  509 

MacMahon,  unable  to  work  effectively  and  harmoniously 
with  the  legislative  chambers,  resigns,  and  Grdvy  takes 
his  place.  Education  is  taken  entirely  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  priests. 

c.   Great  Britain, 

During  the  period  of  the  French  Revolution  England 
had  granted  representative  institutions  to  Canada ;  an 
agitation  had  arisen  in  Ireland  for  entire  separation  from 
England,  and  a  national  government.  This  agitation  was 
put  down  by  force  of  arms  and  by  "  cruel  severities,"  and 
the  act  of  union  was  passed,  by  which  the  government  of 
Ireland  and  England  was  combined  under  a  single  imperial 
parliament,  while  the  Irish  and  English  Churches  were 
united  into  one  "  Protestant  Episcopal  Church."  In  1807 
the  slave-trade  had  been  abolished  in  the  British  domin- 
ions. The  sudden  and  extensive  introduction  of  machinery 
into  many  important  manufactures  had  thrown  many  hand- 
workers out  of  employment,  and  produced  great  misery  in 
the  manufacturing  districts.  This  misery  led  to  riot,  ma- 
chine-breaking (Luddites),  and  demands  for  legal  protec- 
tion for  the  rights  of  laborers ;  the  newspaper  called  the 
"  Weekly  Political  Register  "  did  much  to  foment  discon- 
tent, and  from  every  side  came  demands  for  social  and 
political  reforms. 

Holland  having  joined  France  in  war  against  England 
(1795),  England  seized  the  colonial  possessions  of  the 
latter,  notably  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Ceylon,  which, 
from  this  time  forward,  British  colonists  began  to  settle 
and  rule.  Australia  was  also  taken  possession  of,  the  first 
colonists  being  British  convicts. 

The  British  compel  the  dey  of  Algiers  to  abol- 
ish Christian  slavery.  —  The  sufferings  of  the  la- 
boring classes  cause  violent  agitations,  culminating 


510  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

in  giant  meetings  at  Manchester,  demanding  parliamentary 
reform.  These  meetings  are  broken  up  by  government 
troops;  the  "habeas  corpus'1''  is  temporarily  suspended,  and 
acts  are  passed  in  parliament,  designed  for  the  suppression 
of  publications  and  assemblies  calculated  to  disturb  the 
peace.  From  this  time  dates  the  rapid  development  of 
Conservative  and  Liberal  parties  in  English  politics. 

Lord  John  Russell  moves  the  repeal  of  the  corporation 
and  test  acts,  thus  admitting  Protestant  dissenters  to  pub- 
lic office.  This  is  soon  followed  by  the  Catholic  relief  act, 
which  opens  government  positions  to  Catholics  also.  Un- 
der William  IV.  (1830-1837),  Lord  John  Russell  brings 
forward  a  reform  bill,  by  which  the  right  of  suffrage  is 
much  more  widely  and  more  justly  given ;  rejected  by 
parliament,  parliament  is  dissolved ;  brought  forward  in 
the  next  parliament,  it  is  passed  by  the  Commons,  rejected 
by  the  Lords ;  riots  ensue  throughout  England.  In  1832 
it  is  finally  passed,  and  thus  the  large  manufacturing  towns 
more  nearly  receive  a  due  share  of  political  power.  In 
the  same  year  a  bill  passes  parliament  abolishing  slavery 
throughout  the  British  dominion,  and  giving  a  recompense 
of  $100,000,000  to  the  slave-owners. 

Acquisition  of  new  territory  and  new  dominion  in  India; 
in  some  cases  the  English  become,  by  request,  the  guar- 
dians or  protectors  of  Hindoo  chiefs  or  monarchs.  Widow- 
burning  is  abolished,  and  the  order  of  Thugs,  or  hereditary 
assassins,  suppressed. 

— I       Accession  of  Victoria.  —  The  working  people  of 
'_ |  Birmingham  and  vicinity  (Chartists')  meet  arid 


draw  up  a  people's  charter,  which  asks  for  annual  parlia- 
ments, universal  manhood  suffrage,  vote  by  ballot  in- 
stead of  by  acclamation,  abolition  of  any  property  qualifica- 
tion for  seats  in  parliament,  and  the  payment  of  members. 
Parliament  rejects  their  demands ;  riots  follow,  which  are 


MODERN   EUROPE.  511 

put  down.  —  At  Manchester  John  Bright  and  Richard 
Cobden  form  an  Anti-Corn-Law  League  in  favor  of  free 
trade.  Owing  to  this  agitation  the  Corn-Laws1  are  re- 
pealed, and  many  other  duties  are  either  abolished  or 
lessened  (1846).  —  Famine  in  Ireland  and  commercial  dis- 
tress in  England. —  Continued  difficulties  with  the  labor- 
ing classes,  many  of  whom  are  thrown  out  of  work,  while 
the  rest  work  at  starvation  prices  on  account  of  the  in- 
troduction of  machinery.  Legislation  to  fix  wages  and 
suppress  discontent  proves  inefficient.  —  In  the  East  the 
British  try  to  force  a  ruler  on  Afghanistan,  subservient  to 
their  interests.  The  Afghans  revolt  and  expel  the  British, 
who  soon  return  with  strong  military  forces  and  replace 
their  own  appointee.  The  Chinese  emperor  forbids  the 
opium-trade,  and  the  Chinese  destroy  great  quantities  of 
opium  in  the  hands  of  the  British;  the  latter  continue 
the  trade  and  claim  redress,  whereupon  the  Chinese  make 
war  upon  them,  but  are  in  the  end  forced  to  meet  their 
demands  (Opium  war). 

Rebellion  in  Ireland  and  renewed  chartist  agita- 
tion in  England ;  both  suppressed. 

The  navigation  laws  are  repealed  in  favor  of 
free  trade.     Property  qualification  of  members  of 
parliament  removed,  and  Jews  admitted  to  seats ; 
the    British   dominion  in  India  constantly  extends,  and 
the  queen  gains  the  title  of  sovereign  of  India  (1858).  — 

1  In  general,  the  term  applied  to  laws  intended  to  protect  grain- 
growers  from  foreign  competition  by  forbidding  importation  of  wheat 
without  heavy  duties,  which  shall  raise  its  price  to  that  demanded  by 
native  land-owners.  The  Corn-Laws  here  referred  to,  however,  were 
especially  notorious  and  grievous,  since  a  succession  of  bad  harvests  and 
the  Napoleonic  wars  had  raised  the  price  of  English  wheat  to  absolutely 
famine  prices.  In  order  to  profit  by  these  circumstances  as  long  as  possi- 
ble, the  Corn-Laws  of  1815  were  passed  in  order  to  force  a  continuation 
of  the  high  prices  of  corn. 


512  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

The  suffrage  is  greatly  extended.  —  Submarine  cables 
unite  England  with  France  and  America.  —  Canada,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  are  formed  into  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  each  province  managing  its  own  local  affairs ; 
representative  governments  are  formed  for  Australia  and 
other  Pacific  colonial  possessions. 

Liberal  elections  in  Great  Britain,  resulting  in 
placing  Gladstone,  the  Liberal  leader,  at  the  head 
of  affairs ;  the  Irish  Church  is  disestablished,  thus 
freeing  Catholic  Ireland  from  the  injustice  of  supporting 
a  Protestant  Church.  —  The  Suez  Canal  is  opened.  —  The 
Irish  land  act  is  passed  (1870),  an  act  which  endeavors  to 
correct  some  of  the  unjust  and  oppressive  conditions  of 
the  tenants  of  Irish  landlords,  compensate  them  for  im- 
provements and  protect  them  from  sudden  and  unreasonable 
eviction.  Education  is  made  compulsory,  and  provided  for 
by  the  State ;  voting  by  ballot  is  introduced. 

Disraeli,  prime  minister ;  shares  in  the  Suez  Canal  are 
bought  from  the  khedive  of  Egypt;  the  queen  receives 
the  title  of  Empress  of  India.  —  Constant  agitation  in 
Ireland  for  juster  arrangements  in  the  management  of 
land,  the  relations  of  land-owners  and  tenants,  and  above 
all,  for  independence  from  English  control  in  local  govern- 
ment. The  most  notable  leader  in  these  agitations  is 
Parnell.  In  1880,  under  Gladstone,  an  Irish  land  act  is 
passed,  which  provides  for  free  sale,  fair  rents,  fixed  ten- 
ure (the  three  -F's),  and  establishes  a  special  court  for 
trying  differences  between  landlords  and  tenants. 

Colonial  difficulties  with  frontier  tribes :  in  Africa,  with 
Zulus  and  Ashantees ;  in  India,  with  Afghans. 

d.    Notable  Events  and  Changes  in  other  Countries. 

The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  colonies  in  South  America 
become  independent  states  of  the  constitutional,  and  very 


MODERN    EUROPE.  513 

generally  of  the  republican,  type.  —  Mexico  revolts  against 
Spanish  rule,  and  becomes  a  republic  (1823).  —  The  Poles 
revolt  against  the  Russians  in  favor  of  national  independ- 
ence ;  they  are  subdued  by  force  of  arms,  and  deprived  of 
their  former  constitution.  —  In  Russia  serfdom  is  abolished 
by  an  imperial  decree  (1858-1863)  ;  —  a  strong  Nihilist 
party  is  formed  opposing  the  whole  Russian  system  ;  having 
no  legislative  bodies  and  no  free  press  by  which  to  urge  re- 
form, modify  the  absolutism  of  the  czars,  and  correct 
the  abuses  of  the  State,  they  diffuse  as  widely  as  possible, 
through  secret  organizations  and  publications,  extreme 
revolutionary  ideas  of  society  and  politics.  —  Austria,  after 
her  defeat  at  Sadowa,  reorganizes  her  government  in  ac- 
cordance with  constitutional  principles,  becomes  reconciled 
with  Hungary,  and  restores  her  constitution.  —  Civil  wars 
in  Spain  between  various  parties  and  rival  claimants  to 
the  throne  end  in  the  establishment  of  a  constitutional 
monarchy.  —  In  the  United  States,  long  agitations  against 
slavery  end  in  the  Civil  War  and  the  Emancipation  Proc- 
lamation of  Abraham  Lincoln,  which  gives  freedom  to  the 
negroes  without  compensation  to  their  masters. 

STUDY  ON  2,  b-d. 

What  point  in  the  remark  that  the  kings  of  the  Restoration  (Bour- 
bons) "  had  learned  nothing  and  had  forgotten  nothing"?  From  the 
events  and  measures  of  the  period  in  France,  what  would  seem  to  be 
regarded  as  the  most  formidable  of  modern  political  forces?  Why 
should  it  be  so  regarded  ?  How  can  you  account  for  the  popularity 
of  Louis  Napoleon ?  What  new  revolution  threatens  France?  What 
principle  seems  to  have  been  thoroughly  established  by  the  first 
French  Revolution? 

What  political  tendency  is  growing  in  England  during  this  whole 
century  ?  What  common  measures  are  taken  in  both  countries  to 
suppress  agitation  ?  Compare  the  demands  of  the  "  Chartists  "  with 
the  various  acts  of  parliament  from  1848  onward  ;  how  far  have  they 
been  answered?  What  acts  of  injustice  in  the  colonial  policy  of 


514  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

England  ?  What  beneficial  measures  has  she  initiated  ?  What  long- 
standing religious  injustices  are  righted  in  this  century  ?  Whom  did 
the  corn-laws  benefit,  and  how  ?  Whom  injure  ?  Explain  how  it  was 
that  the  introduction  of  machinery  caused  great  misery  among  the  arti- 
san classes.  What  social  and  what  political  trouble  appears  in  Ireland  ? 
What  is  the  importance  of  the  Suez  Canal  to  England  ?  What  great 
social  revolution  has  taken  place  in  this  century,  both  in  England  and 
the  United  States?  With  what  difference?  In  what  other  country 
has  a  similar  revolution  occurred  ?  What  other  facts  do  you  find  in 
d  similar  to  facts  and  tendencies  noticed  in  b  and  c?  Compare  Hun- 
gary and  Ireland.  What  acts  of  civilized  countries  in  this  century 
would  you  name  unchristian? 

STUDY   ON    MAP,    PAGES   516,  517. 

What  countries  in  Europe  have  political  boundaries  corresponding 
with  their  natural  boundaries?  Within  these  natural  boundaries, 
what  bonds  of  union  exist  among  the  people?  Between  what  coun- 
tries will  you  expect  to  find  ill-feeling  on  account  of  the  question  of 
boundaries?  What  natural  geographical  units  are  not  yet  political 
units  ?  What  events  or  agitations  correspond  to  this  fact  ?  Judging 
from  the  map  alone,  what  part  of  Europe  would  you  expect  to  find 
most  easily  involved  in  war? 

STUDY   ON    MAP,  PAGES   520,  521. 

What  relation  between  Europe  and  the  rest  of  the  world  ?  What 
great  movement  of  population  is  evidently  taking  place  ?  What  must 
result  to  the  world  from  this  movement  in  point  of  material  civiliza- 
tion ?  In  point  of  cosmopolitanism  ?  Of  community  of  institutions 
and  thought  ?  How  does  this  movement  correspond  to  the  Greek, 
Macedonian,  and  Roman  movements  of  population?  How  does  it 
differ?  What  countries  are  likely  to  crowd  each  other  in  this  move- 
ment? What  effect  will  this  have  on  the  international  relations  of 
Europe  ?  Compare  the  civilized  area  shown  by  this  map  with  that 
seen  in  map  on  p.  2.  Compare  the  civilizations. 

3.  Special  Study  on  the  Development  of  the  German 
Empire,  1815-1880. 

At  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  Stein  demands  that 
constitutional  governments  be  established  in  the 
states  of  the  new  German  Confederation.  This 


MODERN   EUROPE.  515 

proposition^  is  overruled  by  the  influence  of  the  Austrian 
minister,  Metternich,  and  each  prince  is  left  free  to  rule 
as  he  pleases,  with  or  without  a  constitution.  Metternich's 
view  of  the  matter  appears  in  the  following  extract  from 
his  political  "  Confession  of  Faith  "  :  — 

' '  Kings  have  to  calculate  the  chances  of  their  very  existence 
in  the  immediate  future ;  passions  are  let  loose  and  league  to- 
gether to  overthrow  .  .  .  religion,  public  morality,  laws,  customs, 
rights,  and  duties.  .  .  . 

"  Union  between  the  monarchs  is  the  basis  of  the  policy 
which  must  now  be  followed  to  save  society  from  utter 
ruin.  .  .  . 

"  We  are  certainly  not  alone  in  questioning  if  society  can 
exist  with  the  liberty  of  the  press,  a  scourge  unknown  to  the 
world  before  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
restrained  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth,  with  scarcely  any 
exception  but  England.  .  .  . 

' '  The  first  principle  to  be  followed  by  monarchs  .  .  .  should 
be  that  of  maintaining  the  stability  of  political  institutions 
against  the  disorganized  excitement  which  has  taken  possession 
of  men's  minds ;  .  .  .  and  respect  for  laws  actually  in  force 
against  a  desire  for  their  destruction.  .  .  . 

"  The  first  need  of  society  is  to  be  maintained  by  strong 
authority,  and  not  to  govern  itself.  .  .  .  The  first  and  greatest 
concern  for  the  immense  majority  of  every  nation  is  the  stability 
of  its  laws,  .  .  .  never  their  change." 

The  action  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  rouses  great  in- 
dignation throughout  the  German  universities.  Student- 
societies  and  gymnastic-unions  are  everywhere  formed, 
with  German  unity  and  liberty  for  their  real  aim.  In 
1817  occurs  the  three-hundredth  anniversary  of  the  nailing 
of  Luther's  theses  to  the  church-door  of  Wittenberg.  The 
students  hold  a  commemoration  festival  on  the  Wartburg, 
when,  with  speeches  and  huzzas,  they  burn  in  a  roaring 


Longitude     20      West      10 


518  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

bonfire  certain  writings  favoring  absolutism,  and  form 
upon  the  spot  a  new  association  for  the  advancement  of 
liberty  and  unity. 

This  outburst  is  deemed  worthy  of  serious  attention  on 
the  part  of  the  Great  Powers  of  Europe,  who  regard  the 
universities  with  suspicion ;  their  feeling  is  thus  expressed 
by  a  writer  of  the  time:  "What  are  the  Universities? 
Gothic  remains  of  the  Middle  Ages,  irreconcilable  with 
the  institutions  and  need  of  our  own  century.  They 
confuse  our  youth ;  they  mislead  public  opinion.  .  .  . 

"  They  are  archives  of  all  the  errors  of  centuries ;  they 
beget  anew  and  perpetuate  the  false  theories  of  the  past." 
Another  writer  of  the  time  says :  "  Ignorant  professors 
tell  the  young  student  that  it  is  his  duty  to  reform  his 
country." 

It  follows  that,  in  1819,  a  Congress  of  German  minis- 
ters, under  the  control  of  Metternich,  issues  the  following 
law :  "  A  censor  appointed  by  government  shall  reside  at 
every  university  to  control  the  student  societies  there,  to 
watch  the  instruction  given,  and  to  dismiss  immediately 
any  professor  whose  teaching  may  be  injurious  to  the  gov- 
ernment. No  book  of  less  than  twenty  pages  shall  be 
published  without  the  consent  of  the  governments ;  a  royal 
commission  shall  sit  at  Mayence  to  examine  and  punish 
any  person  who  may  be  suspected  of  having  used  seditious 
language  against  the  government." 

In  carrying  out  these  decrees,  "Houses  are  entered 
everywhere  ;  private  correspondence  is  examined.  When 
letters  are  discovered  expressing  dismay  at  the  new  tyr- 
anny, the  writers  are  instantly  and  often  severely  pun- 
ished. To  have  been  heard  singing  a  patriotic  song,  to 
have  been  seen  wearing  the  old  German  colors,  are  crimes 
that  can  be  punished  with  many  months'  imprisonment." 

In  Austria,   however,    the    school-children   are    taught 


MODERN    EUROPE.  519 

M  to  honor  the  sovereign  as  they  would  their  father  and 
mother,  and  to  remember  that  he  has  absolute  power  over 
their  bodies  and  over  all  their  goods." 

After  the  news  of  revolutions  in  favor  of  constitutional 
liberty  and  national  independence  in  Spain,  Greece,  and 
Italy,  three  new  German  societies  are  formed  to  agitate  for 
similar  ends,  —  the  Teutonia,  Grermania,  and  Arminia  ; 
the  latter  is  named  after  Arminius  or  Hermann,  the  old 
defender  of  Germany  against  the  Romans.  Of  these,  the 
Grermania  consists  of  the  followers  of  Victor  Hugo  and  of 
Heine,  and  spreads  the  doctrine,  "  Forget  nationality ; 
think  only  of  humanity ;  princes  only  have  diverse  inter- 
ests ;  the  people  of  all  countries  are  friends."  Continual 
agitation,  met  by  the  continual  opposition  of  princes,  in- 
stigated, and  to  some  extent  forced,  by  Metternich.  In 
some  of*  the  states,  the  princes  try  palliative,  in  others, 
repressive  measures. 

During  this  period  occurs  at  Hambach  the  festival  of 
the  German  May.  More  than  25,000  people,  from  all 
classes  and  from  all  parts  of  Germany,  are  present ;  bands 
play  the  national  airs  that  princes  have  forbidden;  the 
feasters  wear  the  old  German  colors  of  black,  red,  and 
gold ;  and  upon  a  banner  are  inscribed  the  words,  "  Ger- 
many desires  '  Unity,  Freedom,  Equality! '  "  But  the  chief 
speakers  at  this  German  May  are  arrested  and  convicted ; 
speech  and  press  are  more  strictly  gagged ;  even  those 
princes  who  have  promised  constitutions,  "  mostly  forget," 
as  Freeman  says,  "  to  give  them." 

Meanwhile,  a  new  king,  Frederick  William  the  Fourth, 
has  come  to  the  throne  of  Prussia,  and  the  people  hope 
for  a  change;  but  he  declares:  "A  sheet  of  paper  shall 
not  come  between  me  and  my  subjects ;  paragraphs  shall 
not  rule  us,  nor  shall  they  replace  our  time-honored  reli- 
ance on  one  another." 


100  80  60 


522  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

With  the  news  of  the  second  .French  Revolu- 
tion, and  the  establishment  of  a  new  French  re- 
public, the  agitation  in  Germany  increases ;  excited 
political  meetings  are  held,  and  street  fights  (barricades') 
occur  in  Berlin  and  in  Vienna.  The  latter  city  falls  into 
the  hands  of  citizens  and  students,  and  Metternich  is,  for 
the  time  being,  compelled  to  flee.  These  disturbances 
result  in  the  calling  of  a  German  National  Assembly  at 
Frankfort,  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  constitution  for 
Germany.  This  Assembly  discusses  a  union  of  the  Ger- 
man states,  and  decides  upon  a  central  government  with 
two  representative  bodies,  one  of  which  is  to  be  elected  by 
universal  suffrage. 

Two  parties  now  arise  in  Germany,  one  wishing  to  re- 
tain, the  other  to  exclude,  Austria  from  the  Confederation ; 
the  latter  party  looks  to  Prussia  as  its  natural  leader. 
The  period  is  full  of  quarrels  and  of  discontent  over  the  con- 
stitution of  Germany  as  a  whole,  and  over  the  constitutions 
of  separate  states.  As  a  result  of  these  long  agitations,  it 
may  be  said  in  general,  that  nearly  all  the  German  states 
gain  some  form  of  constitutional  government;  about  half 
of  these  constitutions  are  granted  between  1818  and 
1848,  and  the  rest  between  1848  and  1870.  As  for  the 
long-growing  jealousy  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  it  culmi- 
nates at  Sadowa  (see  p.  503)  with  the  exclusion  of  Austria 
from  the  Confederacy  and  the  formation  of  a  North  Ger- 
man Confederation,  under  the  leadership  of  Prussia,  with 
Bismarck  for  its  chancellor.  This  government  has  two  rep- 
resentative chambers,  one  representing  the  governments  of 
the  various  states,  the  other  elected  by  universal  suffrage. 
During  the  progress  of  the  Franco-Prussian 
war,  Lewis,  king  of  Bavaria,  sends  the  following 
circular-letter  to  the  king  of  Saxony  and  to  the 
other  rulers  of  the  various  German  states :  — 


MODERN   EUROPE.  523 

"Most  serene  and  powerful  Prince,  dear  Friend,  Brother, 
and  Cousin  :  — 

"Victoriously  led  by  Prussia's  heroic  King,  the  German 
tribes,  who  for  centuries  have  been  united  in  language,  manners, 
science,  and  art,  now  celebrate  a  brotherhood  of  arms  which 
gives  a  glorious  proof  of  the  importance  of  the  power  of  a 
united  Germany.  ...  I  now  address  myself  to  the  German 
Sovereigns,  and  especially  to  your  majesty,  to  propose  that  you 
should,  together  with  me,  urge  upon  his  majesty  the  King  of 
Prussia,  that  the  exercise  of  the  presidential  rights  be  united 
with  the  title  of  Emperor." 

The  king  of  Prussia  accordingly,  on  Jan.  17, 1871,  thus 
addresses  the  German  armies:  — 

"  On  this  day,  ever  memorable  to  me  and  my  House,  I 
take,  with  the  consent  of  the  German  Princes,  and  the  ad^ 
hesion  of  all  the  German  people,  in  addition  to  my  rank 
as  King  of  Prussia,  that  of  German  Emperor.  Your  brav- 
ery and  endurance,  which  I  again  recognize  to  the  fullest 
extent,  have  hastened  the  work  of  the  unification  of  Germany, 
a  result  which  you  have  achieved  at  the  sacrifice  of  so  much 
blood. 

"  Let  it  always  be  remembered  that  brotherly  feeling,  brav- 
ery, and  obedience,  have  rendered  the  army  victorious." 

On  the  next  day,  at  Versailles,  in  the  palace  of  Lewis 
XIV.,  the  German  Empire  is  solemnly  proclaimed  with 
the  constitution  given  on  p.  497. 

Two  great  agitations  mark  this  decade  for  Ger- 
many, the  struggle  with  the  Ultramontanists,  who 
assert  the  power  of  the  pope  as  against  that  of 
the  State,  and  the  struggle  with  the  Socialists.  In  both 
of  these  conflicts  compromise  measures  have  been  adopted 
on  the  part  of  Bismarck. 


524 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 
STUDY   ON    3. 


What  are  the  two  aims  of  agitation  in  Germany  up  to  1870? 
Which  of  these  aims  is  peculiar  to  Germany?  Which  is  character- 
istic of  the  century  ?  What  advantages  does  Metternich  see  in  kings  ? 
Why  does  he  call  the  "  liberty  of  the  press  "  a  scourge  ?  What  power 


^^^^|=  Native  Italian  dominion,- 
I*  <*  **  I  =  Papa!  dominion. 
I  |=  Territory  under 

foreign  dominion  or  influences; 

Spanish  or  Austrian. 


ITALY 

IN 

1815. 


Naples 


S/CILY 


is  closely  allied  -with  this  in  Germany?  What  power  is  set  to  work  to 
counteract  it  in  Austria?  What  oppressions  in  Germany  are  peculiar 
to  this  century?  What  is  the  weak  point  in  what  Frederick  Wil- 
liam IV.  says  ?  What  events  prove  that  the  internal  peace  and  order 
of  one  European  country  are  of  value  to  every  other  V  How  far  do 
events  in  Germany  prove  the  use  of  the  agitations  and  difficulties  of 


MODERN   EUUOPE.  525 

the  century?      "What   principle   of    government   do   they  thoroughly 
recognize  ? 

What  feelings  are  shown  in  the  circular  letter  of  Lewis  of  Bavaria  V 
In  the  address  of  the  Prussian  king  to  the  army  ?  What  trouble  does 
Germany  experience  from  1871-1880,  in  common  with  other  countries 
of  Europe? 

4.  Special  Study  on  the  Development  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Italy. 

a.    STUDY  ON   MAP  OF  "ITALY  IN   1815." 

What  part  of  Italy  is  under  native  Italian  rule?  What  historic 
reason  is  there  for  the  presence  of  Austrian  and  Spanish  rulers  ?  For 
the  pope  as  a  temporal  ruler  ?  Of  these  various  rulers,  which  will 
appeal  most  to  Italian  sympathies,  and  why? 

b.  Summary  of  Leading  Italian  Events,  1815-1870 ;  (com- 
pare with  2). 

Revolution  in  Spain;  the  Spaniards  demand  and 
temporarily  obtain  a  written  constitution  of  the 
English  type.  —  The  Neapolitans  at  once  revolt 
and  declare  their  right  to  the  same  privileges  as  the 
Spaniards;  their  king  yields,  and  swears  to  rule  by  a  free 
constitution.  An  unsuccessful  Sicilian  revolt  for  inde- 
pendence follows.  The  Austrian  prime  minister,  Metter- 
nich,  calls  a  congress  of  the  kings,  emperors,  and  prime 
ministers  of  Europe,  and  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia  com- 
bine to  suppress  the  south  Italian  rebellions ;  this  congress 
issues  the  following  manifesto :  "  The  events  that  have 
recently  taken  place  in  Naples  have  necessarily  created  a 
sentiment  of  profound  uneasiness  in  the  minds  of  the  Sov- 
ereigns who  have  charged  themselves  with  the  duty  of 
watching  over  the  tranquillity  of  Europe.  They  have 
recently  crushed  the  Revolution,  and  yet  they  now 
find  that  it  is  still  alive.  .  .  .  They  have,  therefore, 
agreed  to  hold  counsel  together,  and,  if  necessary,  to 
take  up  arms  in  common  with  the  view  of  putting  an 


626  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

end  to  the  disturbances  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  ..."  —  An  Austrian  army  enters  the  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  and  restores  the  absolute  royal  power; 
"  about  a  thousand  person's  are  condemned  to  death,  pri- 
son, or  exile ;  "  to  all  this  the  Neapolitan  king  voluntarily 
consents. 

Meanwhile  "Young  Italy,"  a  secret  society  for 

making  Italy  free  and   independent,  is   growing 

up  under  the  leadership  of  Mazzini. 

The    Sardinian  king  grants  a  new  constitution 

to  his  people ;  Sicily  and  Naples  revolt,  and  a  free 
constitution  is  again  granted  by  their  king.—  Northern 
Italy  revolts  against  Austria ;  the  Sardinian  king  joins  the 
insurgents,  and  Austria  is  for  the  time  worsted.  The  re- 
volts in  southern  and  central  Italy  increase  in  fury,  and 
the  Sicilian  king  is  compelled  to  grant  a  new  democratic 
constitution;  Venice,  temporarily  free  from  Austria,  is 
proclaimed  a  republic  under  the  leadership  of  Maiiin. — 
The  Sardinians  fight  the  Austrians  at  Novara;  are  de- 
feated and  submit  to  peace  on  condition  that  all  shall 
be  as  before.  —  VICTOR  EMMANUEL  becomes  "king  of 
Sardinia.  Revolution  in  Rome  against  the  papal  govern- 
ment ends  in  the  establishment  of  the  Roman  republic. 
Garibaldi  is  its  general,  and  Mazzini  its  most  prominent 
leader. 

Insurrection  for  popular  rights  breaks  forth  in  Genoa, 
Leghorn,  Florence ;  France,  Spain,  and  Austria  send 
troops  into  Italy  to  restore  the  old  order.  The  French 
enter  Rome;  Garibaldi  and  Mazzini  escape;  Venice  is 
retaken,  and  the  Austrian  power  re-established  in  north- 
ern Italy. 

Sardinia,  in  alliance  with  France  and  England, 

gives   them    effective    aid    in    the    Crimean    war. 

When  the  peace  of  Paris  is  concluded,  Cavour,  the 


MODERN    EUROPE.  527 

prime  minister  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  urges  strongly  the 
dangers  to  Italy  from  Austrian  occupation;  Napoleon  III. 
agrees  to  help  Sardinia  in  case  of  a  war  with  Austria,  and 
Victor  Emmanuel's  daughter  is  married  into  the  Napoleon 
family.  Austrian  troops  are  now  concentrated  on  the  Sar- 
dinian frontier,  and  Sardinia  prepares  for  war ;  volunteers 
from  all  Italy  join  her;  Florence,  by  a  popular  vote,  de- 
clares that  Italy  shall  be  independent  of  Austria,  and 
places  herself  under  the  leadership  of  Sardinia  and  Victor 
Emmanuel.  Austria  now  demands  that  Sardinia  shall  dis- 
arm and  dismiss  the  Italian  volunteers.  War  follows ;  the 
Italians  under  Victor  Emmanuel,  allied  with  the  French 
under  Napoleon  III.,  win  the  victories  of  Magenta  and 
Solferino.  Milan,  evacuated  by  the  Austrians,  declares 
itself  annexed  to  Sardinia.  Modena  and  Parma  likewise 
declare  themselves  to  be  under  the  lead  of  Victor  Em- 
manuel. The  war  ends  with  the  peace  of  Villafranca ; 
Austria  cedes  the  greater  part  of  Lombardy  to  Napoleon, 
who  is  to  give  it  to  Sardinia ;  the  two  emperors  promise  to 
urge  an  Italian  confederation,  with  the  pope  for  its  hon- 
orary president,  but  the  rights  of  the  Austrian  dukes  ruling 
in  north  Italy  are  expressly  reserved.  Romagna  at  once 
declares  in  popular  assembly  for  annexation  to  Sardinia, 
and  its  government  is  organized  by  Victor  Emmanuel. 
The  pope  excommunicates  all  the  promoters  of  this  usur- 
pation ;  but  the  placards  of  excommunication  require  an 
armed  force  to  protect  them.  Tuscany,  in  popular  assem- 
bly, votes  that  the  Austrians  are  deposed  and  the  country 
annexed  to  Sardinia. 

Northern  Italy,  except  Venice,  is  now  united 
under  Sardinian  rule ;  Sicily  desires  to  join  this 
union,  but  Victor  Emmanuel  hesitates  to  accept 
this    new  responsibility.      Garibaldi,   however,   aided    by 
Mazzini  and  a   band   of   volunteers,  enters  Sicily,  heads 


628  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

a  revolt  against  the  Spanish  Bourbons,  wins  Sicily  and 
Naples,  becomes  their  dictator,  but  shortly  declares  Victor 
Emmanuel  "king  of  Italy."  The  king,  however,  does  not 
accept  this  trust  until  he  is  chosen  ruler  by  the  votes  of 
the  people  themselves.  This  following  soon,  he  becomes 
king  of  all  Italy  save  of  Venice,  still  in  the  hands  of 
Austria,  and  Rome,  under  the  temporal  rule  of  the  pope, 
upheld  by  French  troops.  In  1866,  comes  the  battle  of 
Sadowa,  after  which  Austria  surrenders  the  possession  of 
Venice;  Venice  at  once,  by  universal  suffrage,  votes  her- 
self a  part  of  the  new  Italy.  Rome  alone  remains  under 
foreign  influence ;  but,  on  account  of  the  Franco-Prussian 
war,  France  is  forced  to  recall  her  troops  from  Rome. 
Victor  Emmanuel  enters  the  city,  and  the  Romans  enthu- 
siastically vote  themselves  his  loyal  subjects.  Thus  Italy 
is  united  under  the  constitutional  rule  of  Victor  Emmanuel, 
and  is  once  more  governed  from  its  historic  centre. 

STUDY   ON    6. 

What  are  the  two  leading  movements  in  Italian  history,  1815-1870? 
What  great  feeling  inspires  each  movement  ?  Name  the  other  events 
in  Europe  which  correspond  to  each  of  these  movements.  What  facts 
of  Italian  history  stimulate  each  of  these  movements  ?  What  logical 
reason  is  there  for  the  interference  of  European  monarchs  in  Neapo- 
litan affairs?  What  facts  sustain  this  logic?  How  could  the  Nea- 
politan king  have  secured  his  power  and  established  peace  ?  What 
power  is  on  the  side  of  Austria  ?  On  the  side  of  the  Italian  agita- 
tors ?  Of  what  use  to  Italy  was  the  participation  of  Sardinia  in  the 
Crimean  war?  Of  what  political  value  is  the  marriage  of  Victor 
Emmanuel's  daughter?  Of  what  historic  enmity  does  Cavour  take 
advantage  in  his  alliance  with  Napoleon  III.  ?  What  two  facts  make 
Victor  Emmanuel  the  natural  leader  in  the  two  Italian  movements  of 
our  century?  What  great  modern  principle  is  recognized  in  the  union 
of  the  various  states  of  Italy  to  Sardinia?  What  two  facts  make 
Rome  the  natural  capital  of  Italy  ? 


MODERN   EUROPE.  529 

c.  Incidents  and  Sayings  Illustrative  of  the  Life  and  Character 
of  Victor  Emmanuel.  (Dice}'.) 

Victor  Emiimnuel  and  his  brother  rose  at  dawn,  "  studied 
hard,  lived  simply,  and  were  trained,  almost  before  they  weiv 
out  of  short  clothes,  to  wear  a  uniform  and  carry  arms." 
;-  Summer  or  winter,  wet  or  dry,  Charles  Albert  [their  father] 
never  missed  the  weekly  reviews  of  the  garrison  of  Turin,  .  .  . 
and  at  these  reviews  he  was  invariably  accompanied  by  his  two 
boys."  "Victor  Emmanuel  .  .  .  learned  to  speak  Italian  per- 
fectly, as  well  as  French,  the  former  accomplishment  being  by 
no  means  a  common  one  in  Piedmont,  where  French  was  the 
language  of  society,  while  the  people  spoke  Piedmontese,  a 
strange  patois,  ...  in  which  the  Italian  element  is  barely  pre- 
dominant. He  was  also  taught  Latin,  Roman  history,  the 
Catechism,  and  the  art  of  war." 

After  the  battle  of  Novara,  "  as  Victor  Emmanuel  rode  away 
at  the  head  of  his  shattered  regiments,  he  turned  around  towards 
the  Austrian  columns,  which  were  pressing  close  upon  his  heels, 
brandished  his  sword  towards  the  enemy,  and  said  with  a  deep 
curse,  '  But  Italy  shall  be.'  .  .  .  Whether  the  words  were  used 
or  not  at  the  time  assigned,  it  is  certain  that,  from  the  day  of 
Novara  to  that  on  which  he  entered  Rome  as  king,  Victor 
Emmanuel  never  wavered  in  his  resolve  that '  Italy  should  be.' " 

In  1849,  in  an  appeal  to  the  electors,  Victor  Emmanuel  writes  : 
' '  Never  till  the  present  day  has  the  House  of  Savoy  appealed 
in  vain  to  the  loyalty,  the  good  sense,  and  the  affection  of  its 
subjects  ;  I  have  therefore  the  right  to  trust  in  my  people  at 
the  present  moment,  and  to  feel  assured  that,  united  one  with  the 
other,  we  shall  be  able  to  uphold  the  Constitution,  and  to  pre- 
serve the  country  from  the  dangers  which  threaten  us." 

In  1859,  referring  to  obligations  alike  to  European  powers 
and  to  Italv,  Victor  Emmanuel  thus  speaks  to  his  parliament : 
"Our  condition  is  not  free  from  danger,  because,  although  we 
respect  treaties,  we  are  not,  and  cannot  be,  insensible  to  the 
cry  of  anguish  which  is  raised  towards  as  from  so  many  parts 
of  Italy.  Strong,  however,  in  union,  confident  in  our  good 


630  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

right,  we  await,  at  once  prudent  and  determined,  the  decrees  of 
Divine  Providence." 

When  war  was  finally  declai'ed  by  Sardinia  against  Austria, 
and  Cavour  returned  from  Paris  with  the  promise  of  French 
aid,  he  was  welcomed  with  strong  enthusiasm  by  the  people  of 
Turin.  When  he  went  to  tell  the  king  of  his  reception,  Victor 
Emmanuel  interrupted  with  the  words:  "There  is  no  need 
for  you  to  tell  me  anything,  for  while  you  were  standing  on  the 
balcony,  I  was  standing  amidst  the  crowd  below,  shouting, 
'  Hurrah  for  Cavour  ! '  with  the  best  of  them." 

For  this  war,  as  he  said,  the  king  "  had  prayed  and  waited 
ten  long  years." 

Speaking  of  Mazzini  at  this  time,  he  said:  "You  may 
depend  upon  it  that,  if  I  had  believed  Mazzini  had  had  it  in  his 
power  to  make  Italy  independent,  I  should  long  ago  have  been 
a  Mazzinean  myself." 

"Indeed,  at  this  moment  Victor  Emmanuel's  elation  of 
spirit  was  so  great,  that  his  generals  and  ministers  thought  it 
necessary  to  caution  him  against  any  reckless  exposure  of  his 
person  on  the  field  of  battle  ;  but  to  all  these  remonstrances  the 
king  turned  a  deaf  ear.  '  I  am  going,'  he  said,  '  to  send  some 
thousands  of  men  to  death,  and  how  could  I  ask  them  to  die  for 
Italy  if  I  was  not  prepared  to  show  them  by  my  own  example 
that  the  cause  was  one  worth  dying  for?'" 

After  the  Peace  of  Villafranca,  "  the  advice  tendered  to  the 
leaders  of  the  National  movement  in  the  insurgent  provinces 
was  to  continue  their  preparations  for  resistance,  and  to  trust, 
in  case  of  need,  to  the  House  of  Savoy.  '  You  may  promise 
the  Bolognese,'  said  the  king,  '  that  if  the  Austrians  should 
invade  the  sacred  soil  of  our  country,  I  will  abdicate  as  my 
father  did,  and  will  come  and  take  service  as  a  private  soldier 
in  the  ranks  of  their  Volunteers.'  " 

When  the  news  came  to  Victor  Emmanuel  that  Rome  was 
again  free  to  be  the  capital  of  Italy,  he  exclaimed:  "At  last 
.  .  .  our  arduous  task  is  accomplished,  and  our  country  is  recon- 
structed. The  name  of  Rome,  which  is  the  grandest  name 


MODERN  EUROPE.  531 

uttered  by  the  mouths  of  men,  is  joined  with  the  name  of  Italy, 
the  name  which  is  dearest  to  my  heart." 

d.    Words  of  Count  Cavour. 

"I  am  an  honest  middle-course  man,  desiring  and  hoping  for 
social  progress  with  all  my  might,  but  resolved  not  to  purchase 
it  at  the  cost  of  a  universal  overthrow.  ...  I  foresee  that  a 
tolerably  violent  crisis  is  inevitable.  But  I  would  have  that 
crisis  brought  about  with  all  the  discretion  compatible  with  ex- 
isting circumstances ;  and,  besides  this,  I  am  more  than  per- 
suaded that  the  mad  attempts  made  by  the  men  of  action  do 
but  retard  and  render  it  more  risky." 

Cavour  writes  in  1854 :  "  Since  Providence  has  so  willed  it 
that  Piedmont  should  alone  be  free  and  independent  in  Italy,  it 
is  the  duty  of  Piedmont  to  use  that  liberty  and  independence  in 
pleading  the  cause  of  our  unfortunate  peninsula  before  Europe. 
We  will  not  shrink  from  that  perilous  task ;  the  king  and  the 
country  are  determined  to  accomplish  it  to  the  uttermost.  .  .  . 
My  whole  life  is  consecrated  to  one  object,  —  that  of  the  eman- 
cipation of  my  country." 

In  the  Sardinian  parliament  Cavour  writes  thus  in  regard  to 
sending  soldiers  to  the  Crimean  war:  "  Our  country  must  give 
evidence  that  her  children  can  fight  courageously  on  the  field. 
Believe  this,  that  the  glory  our  soldiers  will  know  how  to 
achieve  on  the  Eastern  coast  will  do  more  for  the  future  of 
Italy  than  all  the  noisy  talking  in  the  world.  .  .  ." 

Again,  and  later,  "111  luck  to  him  who  renounces  the  land 
of  his  birth  ;  who  renounces  his  brothers  as  unworthy  of  him. 
For  myself,  I  am  decided.  .  .  .  Happy  or  unhappy,  my  coun- 
try shall  have  my  whole  life." 

At  twenty-four  he  writes:  "Society  is  marching  with  long 
strides  toward  democracy.  ...  Is  it  a  good?  is  it  an  evil?  I 
know  little  enough ;  but  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  inevitable 
future  of  humanity.  Let  us  prepare  ourselves  for  it,  or,  at 
least,  let  us  prepare  our  descendants,  whom  it  concerns  more 
than  us." 


632  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

e.    Extracts  from  Mazzini  (from  a  pamphlet  published  in  Lon- 
don after  the  battle  of  Novara). 

Mazzini  describes  his  followers  as  "  the  sole  party  deserving 
the  name  of  National,  because  while  leaving  intact  each  man's 
individual  convictions,  whether  monarchial  or  republican,  and 
asserting  that  the  form  of  government  shall  be  decided  by  the 
whole  nation,  legally  represented,  it  inscribes  upon  its  banner, 
'  War  by  all,  and  for  all :  The  Nation  for  the  Nation.  .  .  . ' 

"The  path,  I  repeat,  is  clear.  It  is  the  path  of  Action,  and 
"they  must  pursue  it,  regardless  of  persecutions,  delusions,  or 
calumny  ;  they  must  live  and  die  in  faith  and  in  action.  The 
creation  of  Italy  is  an  aim,  which,  achieved,  will  change  the 
fate  of  Europe,  and  of  Humanity.  They  must  rise  to  the 
height  of  the  Idea,  and  learn  to  truly  love  and  to  despise,  —  to 
love  their  Italian  country  with  all  their  heart  and  soul,  and  to 
despise  with  all  their  soul  the  sufferings  that  inexorabby  attend 
upon  that  love.  .  .  ." 

******* 

"  To  labour  to  destroy  the  dualism  set  up  between  Piedmont 
and  Italy  ;  to  Italianize  Piedmont,  and  convince  her  that  she  is 
but  a  zone  of  Italy,  —  the  freest,  —  therefore  having  the  great- 
est duties  to  perform.  .  .  . 

"  To  unceasingly  recall  the  Italians  to  the  worship  of  the 
True ;  to  the  adoration  of  principles ;  to  morality,  without 
which  they  cannot  exist  as  a  Nation  ;  to  teach  them  to  abhor 
all  those  paltry  falsehoods,  small  artifices,  and  cowardly  trans- 
actions, which  profane  and  degrade  the  cause  of  a  People,  the 
number  of  whose  martyrs  already  suffices  to  found  a  religion. 

"And,  above  all  things,  to  prepare  Action  —  Insurrection. 

"  This  is  the  program  of  all  who  profess  themselves  Apos- 
tles of  the  Nation." 

******* 

"  "We  recognize  no  judges  but  God,  our  own  consciences,  and 
the  Italy  of  the  future.  ..." 

"We  hold  it  important  to  say  that  ...  we  have  no  duties, 
save  to  the  common  country  ;  that  we  hold  omnipotent  the  duty 


MODERN   EUROPE.  535 

of  aiding  the  emancipation  of  our  brethren  ;  that  we  believe  the 
material  means  of  every  Italian  city  sacredly  to  belong  to  the 
National  enterprise,  that  wheresoever  the  people  desire  to 
mobilise  them  for  that  intent  we  will  encourage  them  to  do  it, 
as  to  a  holy  act." 

"  When  a  people  is  enslaved,  encircled  by  terror,  bayonets, 
and  spies,  I  know  of  but  one  possible  educational  initiative,  — 
that  of  violently  exterminating  spies,  bayonets,  and  terror,  and 
setting  the  people  free  and  emancipated,  face  to  face  with  their 
own  mission. 

"  Even  if  the  Italians  knew  how  and  were  allowed  to  read,  I 
would  therefore  still  say  to  those  who  cry,  '  Books,  systems,  not 
arms,'  '  Arms  and  Books  ;  first  conquer  yourselves  a  country, 
—  Country  is  Duty,  acknowledged,  recognized,  and  felt.  Your 
country  is  the  idea  of  a  mission  to  be  fulfilled.  Your  country 
is  a  link,  a  communion,  a  visible  Evangel  of  love  among  twenty- 
five  millions  of  men,  destined  to  become  a  Nation.' " 


STUDY  ON  c,  d,  e. 

How  does  each  point  in  Victor  Emmanuel's  training  help  fit  him 
for  the  work  he  is  to  do  for  Italy  ?  Make  a  list  of  the  qualities  of 
character  and  feeling  shown  by  Victor  Emmanuel.  How  does  each 
one  of  these  qualities  and  each  one  of  these  feelings  fit  him  for  his 
work  ?  Considering  the  character  of  the  time  and  the  feeling  of  the 
people,  what  quality  or  feeling  is  perhaps  most  valuable  ? 

What  qualities  of  character  shown  by  Cavour?  How  is  each  one 
valuable  to  a  statesman  in  his  circumstances  ?  What  quality  has  he 
that  unites  him  to  Victor  Emmanuel?  What  quality  necessary  to 
supplement  Victor  Emmanuel?  Name  three  aims  of  the  policy  of 
Cavour  as  seen  in  d. 

What  two  things  are  indicated  by  the  fact  that  Mazzini's  pamphlets 
are  published  in  London?  What  fundamental  difference  between 
Maz/ini's  plans  and  ideas  and  those  of  Cavour?  In  what  does  the 
strength  of  each  lie?  Under  the  existing  circumstances  of  Italy, 
which  does  she  need  most?  Describe  Mazzini's  policy.  What  has  he 
in  common  with  Victor  Emmanuel  and  Cavour  ?  What  has  the  feel- 
ing  felt  by  Mazzini  in  common  with  a  religious  faith? 


534  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL.  HISTORY. 


6.    Special  Study  on  Socialism. 

a.   Extracts  from  St.  Simon.    (French  Socialist  of  Revolution 
ary  period.) 

"  Sire,"  he  writes  to  the  king,  "  the  fundamental  principles 
of  society  require  men  to  regard  each  other  as  brothers,  and  to 
work  together  .  .  .  for  their  common  welfare." 

"  Religion  ought  to  direct  society  towards  the  great  end  of 
ameliorating,  as  rapidly  as  possible,  the  condition  of  the  most 
numerous  and  least  wealthy  class." 

"  Do  not  forget  this  !  Remember  that  to  do  grand  things  we 
must  have  enthusiasm.  .  .  .  All  my  life  resolves  itself  into  one 
great  thought,  —  to  secure  for  all  mankind  the  most  unfettered 
development  of  their  faculties." 

"  What  is  competition  as  far  as  the  laborer  is  concerned?  It 
is  work  put  up  at  auction.  An  employer  wants  a  man.  Three 
men  present  themselves.  .  .  .  One  demands  sixty  cents  a  day 
because  he  has  a  wife  and  children  to  maintain  ;  another  has  a 
wife  but  no  children,  and  will  take  fifty  cents.  A  third,  who 
has  neither,  is  satisfied  with  forty.  .  .  .  What  becomes  of  the 
other  two?  .  .  .  Who  then  is  so  blind  as  not  to  see  that  under 
the  empire  of  unlimited  competition  wages  must  reach  their 
lowest  ebb  ?  .  .  ." 

St.  Simon  proposes  cooperation,  the  motto  of  which  is  to  be  : 

"  Every  one  to  work  according  to  his  capacity  and  to  receive 
the  means  of  enjoyment  according  to  his  requirements.  .  .  ." 
"  The  day  will  come  when  it  will  be  recognized  that  he  who  has 
received  from  God  more  strength  and  intelligence  owes  more  to 
his  fellow-men  in  proportion." 

The  program  of  the  St.  Simonists,  appearing  on  the  first  page  of 
their  organ,  the  "Globe, "on  the  31st  of  Jan.,  1831,  reads  thus  :  — 

Religion. 

Science.  Industry. 

Universal  Association. 

"  All  social  institutions  must  have  for  their  end  the  moral, 


MODERN   EUROPE.  535 

intellectual,  and  physical  improvement  of  the  largest  and  poorest 

class." 

"  All  privileges  of  birth  without  exception  are  abolished." 
"To  every  one  according  to  his  capacity,  to  every  capacity 

according  to  work  done." 

b.  From  Karl  Marx    (German  ;  author  of  "  Capital,"  the  lead- 
ing Socialist  work  on  political  economy  ;  founder  of  theory  of 
Social  Democracy) . 

"Capital  is  the  most  terrible  scourge  of  humanity;  ...  it 
fattens  on  the  misery  of  the  poor,  the  degradation  of  the  worker, 
and  the  brutalizing  toil  of  his  wife  and  children  :  just  as  capital 
grows,  so  grows  also  pauperism  .  .  .  the  revolting  cruelties  of 
our  factor}*  system,  the  squalor  of  great  cities,  and  the  presence 
of  deep  poverty  seated  hard  by  the  gates  of  enormous  wealth." 

"  Our  objects  can  only  be  attained  by  a  violent  subversion 
of  the  social  order." 

"  We  must  appeal  to  force  to  establish  the  rule  of  the 
laborers." 

c.  From  Lassalle  (German  ;  founder  of  Social  Democratic  party) . 

"Here  I  stand;  I  cannot  do  otherwise;  God  help  me; 
Amen !  Even  if  it  lead  to  my  moral  death  ...  I  cannot  act 
otherwise.  An  agitation  of  laborers  exists ;  they  must  have 
theoretical  knowledge,  they  must  have  a  watchword  given  them. 
They  shall  have  it,  even  if  it  cost  the  head." 

"The  alliance  of  science  and  the  laborers,  these  two  oppo- 
site poles  of  society,  when  once  they  shall  have  met  and 
embraced  each  other,  will  crush  all  the  impediments  of  culture 
within  their  brazen  arms.  This  is  the  object  for  which  I  am 
determined  to  spend  my  life  so  long  as  there  is  any  breath  in 
me.  .  .  ." 

' '  Let  others  be  happy  !  In  natures  like  mine  it  is  enough  to 
go  on  struggling,  ...  to  waste  away  one's  own  heart,  and  yet 
to  appear  smiling  while  death  is  gnawing  away  at  one's  inmost 
soul." 


536  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

d.  From  the  Program  of  the  International  (a  society  of  work- 

ing-men of  all  countries,  founded  in  1864) -1 

"In  consideration  that  the  emancipation  of  the  laboring 
classes  must  be  accomplished  by  the  laboring  classes,  that  the 
battle  for  the  emancipation  of  the  laboring  classes  does  not 
signify  a  battle  for  class  privileges  and  monopolies,  but  for 
equal  rights  and  duties  and  the  abolition  of  class-rule ; 

"That  the  economic  dependence  of  the  laboring  man  upon  the 
monopolist  of  the  implements  of  work  [land,  machinery,  build- 
ings, capital]  .  .  .  forms  the  basis  of  every  kind  of  servitude, 
social  misery,  of  spiritual  degradation,  of  political  dependence  ; 
*  *  *  #  #  *  '# 

' '  That  the  emancipation  of  labor  is  neither  a  local  nor  a  na- 
tional, but  a  social  problem  which  embraces  all  countries  in  which 
modern  society  exists,  and  whose  solution  depends  upon  the 
.  .  .  cooperation  of  the  most  advanced  lands  ; 

******* 

"  In  consideration  of  all  these  circumstances,  the  First  Inter- 
national Labor  Congress  declares  that  the  International  Working- 
men's  Association  .  .  .  recognizes  truth,  right,  and  morality  as  the 
basis  of  their  conduct  towards  one  another  and  their  fellow-men, 
without  respect  to  color,  creed,  or  nationality.  This  congress 
regards  it  as  the  duty  of  man  to  demand  the  rights  of  a  man 
and  a  citizen,  not  only  for  himself,  but  for  every  one  who  does 
his  duty.  No  rights  without  duties  ;  no  duties  without  rights." 

e.  From  the  Program  of  the  Socialist  Laborer  Party  in  Germany. 

"1.  Labor  is  the  source  of  all  wealth  and  all  culture,  and, 
as  in  general,  productive  labor  is  only  possible  through  society, 
to  society,  that  is,  to  all  its  members,  belongs  the  aggregate 
product  of  labor,  with  the  universal  duty  of  labor  according  to 
equal  rights  to  each  according  to  his  reasonable  wants. 

"In  the  present  society  the  means  of  labor  [land,  machinery, 

1  For  this  extract,  I  am  indebted  to  Richard  S.  Ely's  book  on  "French 
and  German  Socialism,"  a  clear  and  admirable  work. 


MODERN   EUROPE.  537 

buildings,  capital]  are  a  monopoly  of  the  capitalist  class ;  the 
hereby  conditioned  dependence  of  the  laborer  class  is  the  cause 
of  misery  and  slavery  in  all  their  forms. 

"The  liberation  of  labor  requires  the  conversion  of  the 
means  of  labor  into  common  property  of  society,  and  the  regu- 
lation by  the  community  of  the  aggregate  labor,  with  a  spend- 
ing for  the  common  benefit  and  an  equitable  distribution  of  the 
product  of  labor. 

"The  liberation  of  labor  must  be  the  work  of  the  laborei 
class,  in  opposition  to  which  all  other  classes  are  only  a  reac^ 
tionary  mass. 

"  2.  Starting  from  these  principles,  the  Socialist  Laborer 
Party  of  Germany  strives  with  all  legal  means  after  the  free 
state  and  the  Socialist  society,  the  destruction  of  the  law  of 
wages  through  the  abolition  of  the  system  of  labor  for  wages, 
the  abolition  of  plunder  in  every  shape,  the  removal  of  every 
social  and  political  inequality. 

"  (1)  The  Socialist  Laborer  Party  of  Germany,  though  work- 
ing within  the  national  framework,  is  conscious  of  the  interna- 
tional character  of  the  laborer  movement,  and  determined  to 
fulfil  all  duties  which  the  same  imposes  on  the  laborers,  in 
order  to  make  the  brotherhood  of  all  men  a  reality. 

"  (2)  The  Socialist  Laborer  Party  of  Germany  demands,  in 
order  to  pave  the  way  for  the  solution  of  the  social  question, 
the  establishment  of  Socialist  producing  associations,  with  state 
help,  under  the  domestic  control  of  the  laboring  people.  The 
producing  associations  are  to  be  called  into  life  for  manufac- 
tures and  agriculture,  to  such  an  extent  that  out  of  them  the 
Socialist  organization  of  the  aggregate  labor  may  arise. 

' '  The  Socialist  Laborer  Party  of  Germany  demands  as  the 
principles  of  the  state  :  — 

"1.  Universal,  equal,  direct  right  of  election  and  voting,  the 
giving  of  the  vote  being  secret  and  obligatory  for  all  persons 
belonging  to  the  state,  from  their  twentieth  year,  for  all  elec- 
tions and  votings  in  state  or  parish.  The  day  of  election  or 
voting  must  be  a  Sunday  or  holiday. 


538  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

"  2.  Direct  legislation  by  the  people.  Decision  on  war  and 
peace  by  the  people. 

"3.  Universal  bearing  of  arms.  Defense  by  arming  of  the 
people  instead  of  the  standing  army. 

"4.  Abolition  of  all  exceptional  laws,  particularly  the  laws 
as  to  the  press,  as  to  associations,  and  as  to  assemblies.  Es- 
pecially all  laws  which  limit  the  free  expression  of  opinion,  free 
thinking,  and  investigation. 

"5.  The  decision  of  law-suits  by  the  people.  The  free  ad- 
ministration of  justice. 

"  6.  Universal  and  equal  education  of  the  people  by  the 
state.  Universal  school  attendance.  Free  instruction  in  all 
educational  institutions.  Religion  to  be  declared  a  private 
matter. 

"The  Socialist  Laborer  Party  demands  under  the  present 
society :  — 

"1.  The  utmost  possible  extension  of  political  rights  and 
liberties  in  the  direction  of  the  above  demands.  .  .  . 

"  3.    Unrestricted  liberty  to  combine. 

"4.  A  fixed  labor-day  corresponding  to  the  requirements  of 
society.  The  prohibition  of  Sunday  labor. 

"5.  The  prohibition  of  children's  labor  and  of  the  labor  of 
women  that  is  injurious  to  health  or  morality. 

"  6.  Laws  protecting  the  lives  and  health  of  laborers.  Sani- 
tary control  of  laborers'  dwellings.  The  superintendence  of 
mines,  factories,  workshops,  and  domestic  manufactures  by 
officials  elected  by  the  laborers.  An  effectual  law  making  em- 
ployers responsible  for  injuries  to  their  workmen. 

"  7.    The  regulation  of  prison  labor. 

"8.  Complete  independence  of  administration  of  all  funds 
for  the  relief  or  maintenance  of  laborers." 

STUDY  ON   5. 

What  feeling  and  what  qualities  of  character  displayed  in  a,  b,  c  ? 
What  principle  of  action  is  asserted?  Make  a  list  of  the  aims  of  the 
socialists.  What  modern  institutions  and  theories  are  threatened  by 


MODERN   EUROPE.  539 

these  aims?  Which  of  these  aims  appear  to  you  praiseworthy? 
What  have  these  aims  in  common  with  the  teachings  of  early  Chris- 
tianity (pp.  218-220)  ?  By  what  force  are  these  demands  backed  ? 

6.  Great    Works,  Foundations,  Enterprises,  Inventions, 
Investigations  of  the  Century. 

STUDY  ON   6. 

Make  lists  for  the  nineteenth  century  corresponding  to  those  given 
in  preceding  parts  of  this  book  for  other  periods.  What  do  these 
lists  teach  you  of  the  characteristics  of  our  own  age?  In  what  does 
our  own  superiority  or  originality  lie  ? 

GENERAL  REVIEW  STUDY. 

In  what  period  have  the  teachings  of  Christianity  been  most  prac- 
tically regarded?  What  is  the  force  of  each  of  the  mottoes  on  p. 
491  ?  What  contribution  to  civilization  has  been  made  by  each  na- 
tion you  have  studied  ?  Wrhen  did  the  peculiar  tendencies  and  pecu- 
liar culture  of  the  Middle  Ages  culminate?  W^hat  justice  in  opening 
modern  history,  as  some  writers  do,  with  the  date  1789  ?  About  what 
body  of  water  did  the  Greek  and  Oriental  groups  of  civilization 
centre?  The  Roman  group?  The  modern?  In  what  age  would  you 
rather  live  if  you  could  choose  your  place  and  rank  ?  In  what,  if  you 
must  take  your  chance  ?  What  answer  will  you  give  to  one  who  says, 
"  History  .repeats  itself  "  ?  To  one  who  says,  "  There  is  no  real  prog- 
ress in  human  affairs ;  nations  rise,  decline,  and  die  "  ? 


INDEX. 


INDEX. 


EXPLANATION.  —  &,  S,  I,  6,  tt,  y,  indicate  the  short  sounds  of  these 
letters,  and  a,  e,  1,  o,  u,  y,  their  long  sounds ;  a  =  a  as  in  fall ;  «  and  -eh 
=  k ;  g  =  j,  and  g  =  g  as  in  get.  In  diphthongs  the  combination  is  pro- 
nounced like  the  marked  letter.  The  pronunciation  followed  is  that  of 
Webster. 


Ab'elard,  325. 

Albategni  (al-ba-ta- 

Al  Ma'nmn,  300. 

A  'ben-Ezra,  325. 

nee),  302. 

Algeria,  507,  509. 

Aboukir  (a-boo-keer'), 

Albert'us  Mag'nus,  353. 

Al'ina^est,  209. 

479. 

Al'aric,  233,  239. 

Alphabet,  24,  144,  240; 

A'bu-bekr,  261. 

Albigen'ses,  322. 

Gothic,  239. 

Aca'dia,  407,  442. 

Albany,  405. 

Alsace',  401,  440,  441, 

Aehae'an  League,  121. 

Albuca'sis,  303. 

504. 

Acrop'olis,  61,  83,  120. 

Albuma'zar,  300. 

Al'va,  Duke  of,  404. 

Act'ium,  174. 

Alcuin  (al'kwin),  262; 

Ambrose,  St.,  232,  236, 

Addison,  453. 

extracts  from,  274. 

246. 

Aegos-pot'ami,  113. 

Alchemy,  383. 

Ammian'us,  236. 

Aene'as  Sylvius,  361. 

Al'dlne  press,  368. 

Amphietyon'ic  Council, 

Aene'id,  208,  212. 

Alexander  the  Great, 

36,82,  116. 

AeVchines,  96. 

97,  119-126. 

Amphie'tyony,  35,  50, 

AeVehylus,  96  ; 

Alexandria,  120,  122, 

115,  117. 

extracts  from,  84. 

124. 

Anaxag'oras,  96. 

Ae'tius,  234. 

Alexandrian  kingdoms, 

Anaximan'der,  51. 

Aetolian  League,  121. 

119-126. 

Androni'cus,  163. 

Agamem'non,  35. 

Alexandrian  library, 

Angel'ico,  Fra,  361. 

Agincourt  (azhankoor'), 

122-124. 

Anglo-Saxons,  234. 

346. 

Alfieri  (ai-fe-a'-ree), 

Anne,  450. 

A'gis,  121. 

455. 

An'selm,  303,  323; 

Agrarian  laws,  140,  170, 

Alfonso  the  Wise  of 

extract  from,  312. 

174,  183,  198. 

Castile,  354. 

Anthony,  St.,  236. 

Agrip'pa,  206. 

Alfred  the  Great,  298, 

Anti-corn-law-league, 

Ai'dan,  261,  273. 

300,  309. 

511.                      [334. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (aks-la- 

Alhaz'en,  303. 

Antioch,  126,  319,  331, 

shapel'),  peace  of, 

Alcae'us,  51. 

Anti'Oehus  the  Great, 

444. 

Alc'man,  51. 

15G. 

544 


STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Antony,  Mark,  174,  175. 

Athana'sius,  221,  236.     i 

Ban'nockburn,  350. 

Antom'nus  Pi'us,  201. 

At'talids,  121. 

Barbarians,  2iU. 

Apologists,  Christian, 

At'tila,  233,  239. 

Barons,  feudal,  288. 

209,  210.               [122. 

Auguries,  132,  149,  188. 

Bas'il,  St.,  237. 

Apollfm'ius  of  Rhodes, 

Augustine,  St.  (of  Hip- 

Bastille  (bas-teel'),  475. 

Apule'ius  (yus),  208. 

,  po),  237,  246. 

Battle  of  the  Pyramids, 

Aquilei'a  (see  Venice). 

Augustine,  St.,  254,  258. 

479. 

Aqui'nas,  St.  Thomas, 

Augustus  Caesar  (see 

"  Battle  of  the  Spurs," 

354. 

Cajsar). 

346. 

Ara'tus,  122. 

Augsburg  Confession, 

Bayeux  (ba-yuh')  tapes- 

Arbe'la, 120. 

extracts  from,  426. 

try,  309. 

Arehil'oehus,  51. 

AureTian,  204. 

Bede,  263. 

Archime'des,  122. 

Auspices,  132,  149. 

Bek'et,  Thomas,  323, 

Areh'ons,  02,  64,  70. 

Austerlitz,  481. 

326. 

Areop'agus,  62,  64,  70, 

Australia,  509,  512. 

Belgium,  501. 

91. 

Austria,  beginning  of, 

BClTsa'rius,  251,  258. 

Ar'gonauts,  34. 

294;   union  with 

Benedict,  St.,  258. 

A'rian  controversy,  221, 

Hungary,  400. 

Benedict,  263. 

232,  233. 

Austria,  House  of,  343, 

Benedictine  monks,  258, 

Aristld'cs,  77,  78,84,96. 

344. 

269. 

Aristot'le,  97,  266,  325. 

Austrian  Succession, 

Ben'tham,  Jeremy,  453. 

Aristar'chus,  123. 

War  of,  443,  444. 

Beo'wulf,  266. 

Aristoph'anes,  97  ; 

Austro-Prussian  war, 

Berkeley,  Bishop,  452. 

extracts  from,  112. 

503. 

Berlin,  treaty  of,  506. 

Aristoph'anes  of  By- 

Autos-da-fe (au'tos-da- 

Bernard',  St.,  320,  326. 

zantium,  123. 

fa),  404. 

Bero'sus,  123. 

Arios'to,  411. 

Avars',  251. 

Bible  (see  Septuagint). 

Arl'on,  51. 

Aver7  roe's,  325. 

Bible  (Tyn'dale's),407; 

A'rius,  236. 

Avicen'na,  304,  308. 

(King  James'  ver- 

Army, Roman,  195,  230. 

Avignon  (aveenyon'), 

sion),  408;  (transla- 

Arnold of  Brescia 

343,  344. 

tions  of),  412;  ex- 

(bresh'a), 325. 

tracts  from,  27-29  ; 

Ar'rian,  208. 

Bab'ylon,  16,  17. 

218-220. 

Arteveld'e,  Jacob  van, 

Ba'con,  Francis,  411, 

Bi'on,  123. 

358. 

419. 

Bishops,  230,  231,  242, 

A'ryans,  227. 

Ba'con,  Roger,  354  ; 

288,  337. 

Asceticism,  220,  243, 

extracts  from,  384. 

Bismarck,  506,  523. 

245. 

Bagdad,  281,  282,  315, 

"  Black  Death,"  346, 

Assemblies  of  Estates, 

34k 

351. 

336. 

Balbo'a,  418. 

"  Black  Prince,"  346, 

Assemblies,  popular,  of 

Baldwin,  319,  321. 

291. 

Rome,  131-133,  135. 

"  Bank  of  Conversions," 

Blanc,  Louis,  508. 

As'ser,  301. 

464. 

"Bloody  Mary,"  407. 

INDEX. 


545 


Boccaccio  (bok-kat- 

Byzfin'tium,  90  (see 

Catherine  of  Aragon, 

cho),  358. 

Constantinople). 

407. 

Boe'thius,  258. 

Cabinet,  French,  495. 

Catherine  the  Second 

Bologna  (bolon'ya) 

Cabinet,  English,  493. 

(of  Russia),  445. 

329. 

Cab'ots,  418. 

Catholic  relief  act,  510 

"  Book  of  the  Dead,"  5, 

Caecil'ius,  163. 

Cat'illne,  173,  183. 

Boniface,  Winifried, 

Caedmon  (kad'mon), 

Cato  the  Elder,  163, 

263. 

261. 

•   189. 

Borghese  (bor-ga'-sa), 

Cae'sar,  Augustus,  174, 

Cato  the  Younger  (of 

415. 

189,  196,212. 

Utica),  163. 

Bosnia,  506. 

Caesar,  Julius,  174,  175, 

CatQl'lus,  175. 

Bourgeoisie  (boor- 

182-187. 

Cavour  (cavoor7),  526  ; 

zhwaw'-zie),  4(51,  468. 

Caesar,  Octavian  (see 

extracts  from,  531. 

Bouvines  (booveen'), 

Augustus  Caesar). 

Caxton,  362,  368. 

323. 

Cal'ro,  294,  320. 

Celibacy  of  clergy,  295 

Bramante  (bra-nAn'- 

Calais  (kala'),  408. 

Censors,  134. 

ta),  417.       [440,  442. 

Caliphate,  255,  262,  294. 

Centiir'iate  Assembly, 

Brandenburg,  294,  401, 

Calonne  (kalonn'),  465. 

132,  133,  135,  146. 

Brazil,  405. 

Calvin,  400. 

Cervan'tgs,  411. 

Breda  (bra'-da),  decla- 

Canada, 509,  512. 

Cesaire  (sCsair'),  St., 

ration  of,  448. 

Can'nae,  154,  160. 

259. 

Breda  (bra'-da),  treaty 

CiinSs'sa,  296. 

•Chae-rone'a,  117. 

of,  441. 

"  Canterbury  Tales," 

Chalons  (shalon'),  234. 

Brienne  (bre-enne'), 

358. 

Chancellor,  German, 

465. 

Camil'lus,  148,  150. 

498. 

Bright,  John,  511. 

•Cam'oens,-  411. 

Charities,  199,201,237, 

Bruce,  Robert,  350,  358. 

Campo  Form'io,  peace 

238. 

Brunelleschi  (broo- 

of,  478. 

Charlemagne  (shar7- 

nelles'kee),  301. 

Ca'pgt,  Hugh,  298,  303. 

le-mane),  255,  263, 

Brutus,  151,  174,  175. 

Capit'ularies,  228,  263, 

274. 

Buff  on,  454. 

268. 

Charles  I.  (England), 

Bulga'ria,  310,  505,506. 

Caracal'la,  203. 

408,  409. 

Bundesrath  (bunt'es- 

Car'dan,  362. 

Charles  II.  (of  Eng- 

rflt), 498. 

Cardinals,  337. 

land),  440,  447,  448. 

Bunyan,  451. 

Car'thage,  3,  23,  138, 

Charles  V.  (emperor), 

Buonarot'ti,  Michael 

152,  156,  158  (see 

399,  404. 

Angelo,  412. 

Punic  Wars). 

Charles  X.  (France), 

Burgundians,  233,  250. 

Cassiodo'rus,  259. 

507. 

Burgundy,  348. 

Cas'sius,  174,  175. 

Charles  Mftrtel',  264, 

Burke,  453. 

Cas'sius,  Di'on,  210. 

263. 

Butler's  "Analogy,"  452. 

Castle  of  San  Angelo, 

Chartists,  510,  511. 

Byrhtnoth's  (buert'- 

200. 

Chaucer,  368  ;  extracts 

note)  death,  310. 

Cathedrals,  366,  414. 

from,  389-391. 

546 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Chemistry,  455. 
•Che'Ops,  5. 
China,  French  and 

English  war  with,  503. 
Chivalry,  382. 
Choras'mians,  345. 
Christians,  204, 213, 217, 

231,  233;  extracts 

from  writings,  218- 

220. 

Christianity,  232,  267. 
•Chrysos'tom,  St.,  237. 
Church  of  England, 

262,  407,  408,  509. 
Church  law,  309,  309. 
Church  organization, 

337. 
Church  and  State, 

struggle  of,  504. 
Cic'ero,  173,  175,  180, 

188. 

Cid,  304. 
Cimabue  (che-ma- 

boo'a),  354. 

Cl'mon,  W,  91,  98,  102. 
Cineinna'tus,  147. 
Circus,  Roman,  141,245. 
Cisalpine  Republic, 

478. 
Citizenship,  English, 

494. 
Citizenship,  French, 

497. 
Citizenship,  German, 

499. 
Citizenship,  Greek  (see 

Constitutions). 
Citizenship,  Roman, 

140, 170, 172, 174, 194, 

203  (see  also  Con- 
stitutions). 
Citizenship,  Teutonic, 

224. 


Civil  war  in  England, 
432-436. 

Civil  war  in  France,  406. 

Clar'endon,  448. 

Clar'endon,  constitu- 
tions of,  323. 

Claud'ian,239; 
extracts  from,  247. 

Qlaud'ius,  197. 

Claud'ms  II.,  204. 

Ciem'ent,  St.,  210. 

Cleom'enes,  121. 

Clergy,  estate  of,  336. 

Clis'thenes,  69. 

ClOa'ca  Max'ima,  141. 

015^8,250,259,  271. 

Coalition,  Second,  480. 

Cobden,  511. 

Code  Napoleon,  479. 

CG'la  di  Rienzi  (dee 
ree-en'tzg),  344. 

Col'et,  416,  419. 

Colise'um,  197. 

Colonies,  Dutch,  405. 

Colonies,  English,  409, 
509,  512. 

Colonies,  European, 456. 

Colonies,  Greek,  47, 49. 

Colonies,  Roman,  139, 
170,  171,  174. 

Colonies,  Spanish  and 
Portuguese,  405,  512. 

Colum'ba,  St.,  259. 

Columba'nus,  St.,  259. 

Columbus,  404, 418, 421. 

Comines  (komeen/), 
Philip  de,  362 ;  ex- 
tract from,  393. 

Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  477. 

Commons,  estate  of,  336. 

Commons,  House  of, 
350,  351,  494. 


j  Commonwealth,  Eng- 
lish, 447. 

Commune,  Paris,  508. 

Compass,  369. 

Concordat  of  Francis 
I.,  405. 

Concordat  of  Worms. 
321. 

Confederation  of  the 
Rhine,  481,  486. 

Confession  of  Augs- 
burg, 400. 

Congress  of  Vienna, 
483,  514,  515. 

Con'stantine,  231,  237. 

Constantinople,  231, 
232,267,334,345. 

Constitutions  of  Clarei> 
don,  323. 

Constitution,  English, 
492-494. 

Constitution,  French, 
495;  under  Old  Re'- 
gime,  460,461. 

Constitution,  German 
Empire,  497. 

Constitution  of  the 
Year  VIII.,  479.  [522. 

Constitutions,  German, 

Constitutions,  Greek : 
Spartan,  57 ;  Athe- 
nian, 62,  64,  70. 

Constitutions,  Roman: 
republican,  131-135; 
imperial,  193-195, 
229,  247,  248. 

Consuls,  132,  134. 

Corey r'a,  93,  94. 

Corin'na,  51. 

Corneille  (cornal'),  453. 

Corone'a,  92. 

Corn-laws,  170,  511. 

Corporation  act,  510. 


INDEX. 


547 


Cor'tCs  (Spanish),  336. 

Debt-laws,  63,  145. 

"Don  Qutx'ote,"  411. 

Cor'tez,  404,  418. 

Decameron,  358. 

Dorian  migration,  35. 

Council  of  Chalce'don, 

Decius,  204. 

"  Dragonnades,"  464. 

267. 

Declaration  of  Rights, 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  408. 

Council  of  Clermont, 

450. 

Dflngal',  264. 

296,  329. 

DCcur'ions,  230. 

Dunstan,  St.,  302. 

Council  of  Constance, 

Delphi  and  Delphic 

Dryden,  452. 

344. 

oracle,  35,  36,  50,  55, 

Du'rer,  Albert,  413. 

Council  of  Nice,  232. 

56,  68,  69,  77,  85,  86, 

Council  of  Trent,  400; 

91,  94,  115,  119,  161. 

East  India  Company, 

extracts  from,  424. 

Delphic  Amphictyons, 

408. 

Court,  Roman  Imperial, 

36,  50,  82,  115-117. 

Eastern  question,  502, 

229. 

De'lSs,  90. 

505. 

Court,  French,  466-468. 

Demosthenes,  97,  116, 

Eccle'sia,  70,  71,  77, 

Cras'sus,  173,  174. 

121. 

78. 

Crecy  (cres'sy),  346. 

Denmark,  502. 

Ecgbehrt  (eg'bert),  298. 

Crimed,  445. 

Deputies,  French  Cnam- 

Edda,  extracts  from, 

Crimean  war,  502. 

ber  of,  496. 

226. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  409, 

Descartes  (da-cart7), 

Edes'sa,  319. 

447. 

419. 

Edict  of  Nantes  (nantz), 

Cromwell,  Richard,  448. 

Diad'Schae,  122. 

406,  463. 

Crusade,  First,  329-332, 

Dictator,  133,  135. 

Edward  I.,  350,  355. 

333. 

Dictionaries,  453,  454. 

Edward  III.,  346,  351. 

Crusade,  Second,  332. 

Diet,  German,  337. 

Edward  VI.,  407. 

Cu'rials,  230,  243. 

Dietrich  (deet'rik)  of 

Eg'inhard,  264. 

Curtate  Assembly,  131, 

Berne,  250. 

Egypt  and  Egyptians, 

133,  135. 

Diocletian,  205. 

4,  49,  79,  121. 

Cusa'nus,  362. 

DIodo'rus,  206. 

Egyptian  literature, 

Cuthbert,  St.,  261. 

Dlog'enes,  123. 

extracts  from,  10-16. 

Cyclopedias,  453,  454. 

DIonys'ius,  206. 

Eloi',  St.,  261. 

Cynewulf  (kuen'ewulf  ), 

Directory,  478,  479. 

El'gin  marbles,  87. 

264. 

Disestablishment  of 

Eliot,  Sir  John,  408. 

Cynic  philosophy,  123. 

Irish  Church,  512. 

Elizabeth,  408,  429,  430. 

Cyprian,  St.,  210. 

Disraeli,  512. 

Elsass  (see  Alsace). 

Cyp'selus,  61. 

Dissenters,  408,  448. 

Emancipation  in  Prus- 

Divine Comedy.358,359. 

sia,  487  ;  in  Russia, 

Da'cia,  199. 

Division  of  Roman 

613  ;  in  U.S.,  513. 

Danes,  294,  298,  310. 

Empire,  232. 

Emigrants,  French, 

Dari'us,  73,  75,  77,  120. 

Domesday  Book,  309. 

476. 

Dan'te,  358  ;  extracts 

Dominicans,  365. 

Emperor,  German,  497, 

from,  386. 

Dominic,  St.,  356. 

504;  of  Holy  Human 

Dan'ton,  476. 

Douri'tian,  198. 

Empire,  289,  337  ; 

Dauphiny,  348. 

Donatel'lo,  362. 

Roman,  103. 

548 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Engraving,  369. 

Fiefs,  287. 

General  Privilege,  352. 

En'nius,  163. 

Florida,  404,  445. 

Gei^ghiz  Khan,  343. 

EpSminon'das,  97,  115. 

Fontainebleau  (fontan- 

Gen'seric,  233,  234,  239. 

Eph'ors,  57. 

bld'),  414. 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth, 

Epicte'tus,  206,  213. 

Fo'rum,  140,  143. 

326. 

Epicurean  philosophy, 

Fox,  453. 

Gerbert  (Sylvester  II.), 

124. 

Francis  I.,  405. 

302. 

Epicu'rus,  124. 

Francis,  St.,  of  Assisi 

"  Germa/nia,"  210  ;  ex- 

Erasmus, 411,  419. 

(asee'se),  355. 

tracts  from,  222. 

Eratosthenes,  124. 

Franciscans,  355. 

German  Confederation, 

Erige'na,  301  ;  extracts 

Franche-Comte  (fronsh 

517. 

from,  312,  313. 

kon'ta),  440. 

German  Confederation 

Esco'rial,  414. 

Franco-Prussian  war, 

(North),  522. 

Established  Church 

504,  522. 

German  Empire,  523. 

(see  Church  of 

Franks,  233. 

Glrib'elin,  322,  343. 

England). 

Frederic  Barbarossa, 

Ghiberti  (ge-bar'tee), 

Establishments  of  St. 

320,  321,  326. 

363. 

Lewis,  356,  380. 

Frederic  the  Great,  443- 

Gibbon,  452. 

Estates,  336. 

445. 

Gibraltar,  442. 

Euclid,  124. 

Frederic  William  IV., 

Gil'das,  259. 

EueWeros,  124. 

519. 

Giotto  (jot^o),  359. 

Eugene,  Prince,  442,443 

French  and  Indian  war, 

Girondists,  477. 

Eurip'ides,  97  ;  extracts 

444. 

Gladiators,  167,  173,  184, 

from,  110,  111. 

French  Revolution, 

215,  242. 

Eu'menes  II.,  124. 

474-479. 

Gladstone,  512. 

Eu'patrids,  61. 

Froissart  (frois'sart), 

Glanvil,  Bartholomew, 

Euse'bius,  238. 

359  ;  extracts  from, 

359. 

Eutro'pius,  238. 

391,  393. 

Gnostics,  220. 

Exareh  and  exarchate, 

Fulk  of  Neuilly  (nweel'- 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 

251,  255. 

eh),  320. 

319,  326,  411. 

Exodus,  6,  26. 

Goethe  (gui-teh),  455. 

Gal'ba,  214. 

"  Golden  Bull,"  344. 

Fa'bius  Max'imus,  160, 

Ga'len,  209,  266. 

Go^gias,  97. 

163,  164. 

Galileo,  419. 

Goths,  204,  232,  249. 

"  Faery  Queen,"  410. 

Gall,  St.,  259. 

Gracchi,  170,  171,  176. 

Fall  of  the  Western 

"  Gargant'ua  and  Pan- 

Grand  Alliance,  441. 

Empire,  235. 

tag'ruel,"  411. 

Grain  distribution,  165, 

False  Decre'tals,  309. 

Garibaldi,  527. 

213,  242. 

"  Faust,"  455. 

Gaul,  171,  174. 

Granada,  352,  404. 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 

Gauls,  138,  148. 

Gran'icus,  119. 

352,  404. 

GeVer,  or  Jfiber  (yeV- 

Great  Arma/da,  405, 

Feudalism,  287-291. 

er),  264. 

428. 

Fichte  (fik'teh),  488. 

General  Councils,  337. 

Great  Charter,  349,  378. 

INDEX. 


549 


Great  Interregnum,  343.    Hellespont,  bridging  of,    Hu/guenots,  400,  406, 

Greek  Church,  293. 

79.                                  |      407. 

Greek  deities,  36. 

He'lots,  48,  91. 

Humanism,  360. 

Greek  leagues,  121. 

Helve'tius,  extracts 

Hume,  452. 

Greek  tragedians,  ex- 

from, 472. 

Hundred  Years'  War, 

tracts  from,  110. 

'Helvetic  Republic,  479. 

346,  351. 

Grego'rian  chant,  260. 

Henry  I.,  323. 

Hungarians,  293,  294. 

Gregory  the  Great 

Henry  II.,  323. 

Hungary,  234,  352,  400, 

(First),  251,  260,270. 

Henry  IV.,  295,  296  ; 

441,  502. 

Gregory  the  Great 

(of  France),  406. 

Huns,  232,  233,  234. 

(Seventh),  295,  296, 

Henry  VIII.,  407. 

Huss,  344. 

305. 

Henry  of  Navarre,  406. 

Huygens  (hi-gens),455. 

Gregory  Nazian'zen,  238. 

Heracli'tus,  51. 

Hyk'sos,  6. 

Gregory  of  Tours  (toor), 

Herodotus,  98  ;  extracts 

259;  extracts  from, 

from,  53. 

Image-worship,  293. 

271. 

Herzegovina  (hert-se- 

Inquisition,  369,  404. 

Grosseteste  (grossest), 

go-vee'-na),  506. 

"  Instrument  of  Govern- 

Robert, 856. 

Hesiod(hee/-she-6d),51. 

ment,"  447. 

Grotius  (gro'shus), 

Hildebrand  (see  Grego- 

International, the,  536. 

Hugo,  419. 

ry  VII.). 

lo'na,  259. 

Guelph(gwClf),322,343. 

Hinc'mar,  301. 

lon'ians,  48. 

Guilds,  338-340. 

Hippar'ehus,  125. 

Ireland,  323,  509,  512. 

Gunpowder,  369,  420. 

Hip'pias,  69,  73,  75. 

Irish,  234,  240. 

Gustavus  Adolphus, 

Hippocrates,  98. 

Irish  Church  disestab- 

401. 

Hobbes,  extract  from, 

lished,  512. 

Gutenberg,  363. 

434. 

fsidore'an  decretals,309. 

Ho  'garth,  456. 

Isido'rus,  261. 

Habeas  Corpus,  379. 

Holbein  (hoi-bine),  414. 

Islam,  293. 

IhVdrian,  200. 

Holland,  401,  404. 

Isolates,  98. 

Iiam'baeh  festival,  520. 

Holy  Alliance,  483. 

Is/sus,  120. 

Ilampden,  409. 

Holy  Roman  Empire, 

Isth'mean  games,  50. 

Hannibal,  154,  158,  161. 

255,  294,  481. 

Hftnse,  343. 

Homage,  288. 

Jacquerie  (zhakree'), 

Harvey,  419. 

Homer,  163,  208. 

348. 

Haroun-al-Raschid  (ha- 

Homeric  poems,  35,  37. 

Jahn  (yan),  489. 

roon'-iil.rash'id),  264, 

Horace,  206  ;  extracts 

James  I.,  408,  432. 

281,  284. 

from,  188,  189. 

James  II.,  449,  450. 

Hastings,  299. 

Hospitals,  308, 

Jeanne  d'Arc  (zhan 

Hecatae'us,  51. 

458. 

dark'),  346,  363. 

Hegi'ra,  251. 

HoVpitallers,  329. 

Jena  (ya'na),  481. 

Hellenic  convention 

Howard,  John,  458. 

Jerome,  St.,  238. 

and  confederacy,  89, 

Hrolf  (see  Rollo). 

Jerome  of  Prague,  344, 

90,92. 

"  Hii'dibras,"  452. 

363. 

550 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Jerusalem  (Omar's  con- 

Knox,  400,  408. 

Layamon  (ly'-a-mon), 

questof),  280;  320,345. 

Koran,  261  ;  extracts 

356. 

"  Jerusalem  Delivered," 

from,  276,  279. 

Lay  investiture,  295, 

410. 

321,  322. 

Jesuits,  418. 

League  of  Cambray', 

John  Ball,  extract  from, 

403. 

393.                       [349. 

Labor  agitations,  509, 

League  of  the  Hanse, 

John  Lackland,  323,  324, 

510  (see  Socialism). 

343. 

John  of  Salisbury,  326. 

Laborers,  English,  392. 

League  of  the  "Public 

John  Sc6/tus  (see 

Labyrinth,  5. 

Good,"  348. 

Erigena). 

Lactan'tius,  210. 

League  of  the  Rhine, 

Johnson,  453. 

Lancaster,  House  of, 

343. 

Joinville,  356. 

352. 

League  of  Smalkald, 

Jonson,  410. 

Land  acts,  Irish,  512. 

400. 

Jorda'nis,  260. 

Land  distribution  (see 

Leibnitz  (Hp'nits),  454. 

Jose'phus,  206. 

Agrarian  Laws.) 

Le'o  I.,  the  Great,  St., 

Jugurth'a,  171,  177,  178, 

Land  tenure,  Teutonic, 

234,  239. 

180. 

222. 

Leon'idas,  80,  82. 

Julian,  232,  238,  243. 

Lanfranc  (lonfron'), 

Lep'idus,  174. 

Julius  Caesar  (see 

305. 

Lessing,  455. 

Csesar). 

Langland,  William,  359. 

Leuk'tra,  115. 

Justinian,  251,  260. 

Langton,  Stephen,  349, 

"  Leviathan,"  434,  452. 

Justinian  Code  (see 

356. 

Lewis  VI.,  322. 

Roman  Law). 

La'res,  144. 

Lewis  IX.,  the  Saint, 

Ju'  venal,  209. 

Lassalle',  extracts  from, 

345,  356. 

535. 

Lewis  XL,  348. 

Kant,  454. 

Last  Supper,  412. 

Lewis  XIV.,  439,  440, 

Kar'nak,  6. 

Latin  Church,  293. 

441. 

Kelts,  154,  227. 

Latin  Empire  of  Con- 

Lewis XVI.,  465,  475. 

Kgm'pis,  Thomas  a, 

stantinople,  321. 

Lewis  XVIIL,  483,  507. 

363. 

Latin  Kingdom  of  Jeru- 

Linnae'us, 455. 

King,  Assyrian,  17  ; 

salem,  319. 

Ll'vy,  207. 

English,  492;  feudal, 

Latin  league,  138. 

Locke,  452,  454. 

268,287,437;  French, 

Latin  right,  140. 

Lol'lards,  351. 

460,  466,  467,  470  ; 

La'tium,  129,  137,  138. 

Lombards,  251. 

Roman,  131  ;  Teuton- 

La Vendee  (von-da'), 

Lombard  league,  321. 

ic,  223. 

477. 

Lorraine',  Claude,  456. 

King  George's  War, 

Law,  Church,  268,  329. 

Louisiana,  445. 

444. 

Law,  international,  419. 

Louis  Napoleon,  507, 

Kirk,  409. 

Law,  feudal,  mediaeval, 

508(see  Napoleon  III.)- 

Knights  of  St.  John, 

267,  268. 

Louis  Philippe,  507. 

329. 

Law,  Roman,  143,  145, 

Louvre  (loo'ver),  414. 

200,  239,  251,  267. 

Loyola  (loio'la),  418. 

INDEX. 


551 


Lu/can,  207.                        Maria  Theresa,  44,3,  444. 

Minnesingers,  367  ; 

Lu'cian,  209. 

Marie  Antoinette  (ma- 

extracts from,  385. 

Lucretius,  176,  188. 

re'  on-twa-net'),  477. 

Mirandola  (mee-ran'-do- 

"  Lu'siad,"  411. 

Ma/rius,  171,  172,  176, 

la),  364. 

Luther,  399;  extracts 

180,  183. 

Missionaries,  419,  369. 

from,  423. 

Mark,  march,  294. 

Mithrida/tes,  172,  173. 

Lutzen  (loot'zen),  401. 

Mark,  Teutonic,  222  ; 

Moe'ris,  Lake,  5. 

Luxor,  6. 

mark-moot,  223. 

Moguls,  343,  345,  352. 

Lykurgus,  56,  58. 

Mark's,  St.,  308. 

Moham'med,  251,  261. 

Marlborough,  442. 

Mohammedan  conquest, 

Macedon,  121,  156,  157. 

Martial,  207. 

254,  279,  280. 

Macedonian  War,  165. 

Martin,  St.,  239. 

Mohammedan  civiliza- 

Maehiavel'li, 303. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 

tion,  300-304,  309, 

MacMahon  (mac-ma- 

408. 

315-318. 

6n'),  508. 

Marx,  Karl,  extracts 

Moliere  (mo-le-air'), 

Maecenas,  208. 

from,  535. 

453. 

Magellan,  Magalhaes 

Masaccio  (ma-zat/-cho), 

Monasteries,  258-260, 

(magalya'-e's),  416. 

364. 

269,274,298;  disso- 

Magenta, 503,  527. 

Massinissa,  155,  158. 

lution  of,  407. 

Mag'na  €har'ta,  349. 

Matthew  Paris,  357. 

Monasticism,  235,  237, 

Magnes'ia,  156. 

Mausoleum,  100. 

238,  240,  243. 

Magyars  (see  Hunga- 

Maxim'ian, 205. 

Monastic  orders,  338. 

rians). 

Mazzini  (matzee'neh), 

Monk,  General,  448. 

Maimon'ides,  327. 

526,  527;  extracts 

Montaigne  (mon-tan7), 

Malmcs'bury,  William 

from,  532,  533. 

411. 

of,  327. 

Medici,  Cosimo  di  and 

MoVtanists,  220. 

Man'deville,  Sir  John, 

Lorenzo,  364  ;  Mary 

M6nxte  Cassino  (kSs- 

359;  extracts  from, 

and  Catherine  de,  406. 

seen'o),  258,  270,  308. 

388. 

Melanc'thon,  419. 

Montenegro  (rnonta- 

Mane'tho,  125. 

Memnon,  colossi  of,  6. 

na^gro),  505. 

Manichae'ans,  220. 

Menan'der,  125. 

Montesquieu  (mdn-'-tes- 

Manin  (ma-neenx),  526. 

Mendicant  orders,  338. 

ku),  454. 

Manor,  291. 

MeteFlus,  178. 

More,  Sir  Thomas, 

Manorial  court,  291. 

MeVics,  48. 

419  ;  extract  from, 

Map,  Walter,  327. 

Met'ternieh,  515,  518, 

431. 

Marathon,  75. 

525. 

Moors,  254  ;  in  Spain, 

"  Marble  Faun,"  99. 

Mexico,  404,  513. 

293,  318,  352,  405. 

Marcel  ',  Etienne,  348, 

Michael  Angelo  (see 

MoVcow,  Napoleon  at, 

360. 

Buonarotti). 

483. 

Marcella,  St.,  240. 

Military  orders,  338. 

Mummies,  7. 

Mam-llus,  163. 

Milti'ades,  75,  90. 

Museum.  Alexandrian, 

Marcus  AureFius,  203, 

Milton,  451. 

126. 

217. 

Ministry,  449,  450,  451. 

Museum,  British,  458. 

552 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


MJ  c  'ale,  87. 

Nova'ra,  526,  530. 

Parliament,  336,  350, 

My'ron,  98. 

"  No'vum  Orga'num," 

493;   "Barebones," 

419. 

M-i  ;  "  Rump,"  447, 

Nae'vius,  163. 

448. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte, 

"  Oath  of  the  Tennis 

riirnas'sus,  36. 

478-484,  487,  489,  490. 

Court,"  475. 

Parthenon,  71,  87,  99. 

Napoleon  III.,  507,  508, 

Observatories,  457. 

Parties,  French,  507  ; 

527. 

Oc'cam,  William  of,  360. 

English,  510. 

National  Assembly, 

Odova/ker,  240. 

Pas'cal,  453. 

French,  475. 

Olympic  games,  49,  80. 

Patriarchal  power,  145. 

National  Assembly, 

O'mar,  262,  280. 

Patricians,  130,  146; 

German,  522. 

Opium  war,  511. 

title  of,  234. 

Naval  warfare,  laws  of, 

Order'icus  Vita/lis,  327  ; 

Patrick,  St.,  234,  240. 

503. 

extracts  from,  313, 

Pausa/nias,  90,  209. 

Navigation  act,  439. 

329. 

"Peace  of  Antal'cidfts," 

Nebuchadnezzar,  17. 

Organs,  308. 

114. 

Necker,  465,  466. 

Or'igen,  2J1. 

Peace  of  Augsburg,  400. 

Nelson,  479,  481. 

Orlan'do  Furios'o,  410. 

Peace  of  Oliva,  440. 

Ne'mean  games,  50. 

Oro'sius,  extracts  .from, 

Peace  of  Pyrenees,  439, 

Ne'pos,  Cornelius,  176. 

249. 

440. 

Nero,  197. 

Ostracism,  71. 

Peace  of  Westphalia, 

Nerva,  198. 

Oth'man,  262. 

401. 

Netherlands,  404;  Span- 

Otho, 214. 

Peasants,  French,  461, 

ish,  441,  442. 

Otto  the  Great,  290,  303. 

468. 

New  Comedy,  125. 

O'vld,  208. 

Peasant  revolt,  Eng- 

Newton, 452,  455. 

Oxygen,  455. 

land,  351. 

New  York  City,  405,  441. 

Peasants'  war,  427. 

Nibelungen  Lied  (leed), 

"Painted  porch,"  99. 

Peloponne'sian  war,  93, 

367. 

Palatinate,  441. 

113. 

Nl'cene  Creed,  232. 

Panathenae'a,  104. 

Pentarchy,  483. 

Nihilists,  513. 

Pan'dects  (see  Roman 

Pena'tes,  143. 

Nilom/eter,  5. 

law). 

Per'gamos,  121  ;  library 

Nimwegen  (ne-ma'-gen), 

Pantheon,  206. 

of,  124. 

peace  of,  440. 

Papal  legates,  337. 

PCrian'der,  52. 

Nineveh,  17. 

Pa'phos,  23. 

Per'icles,  91,  92,  95,  99, 

Nobility  :  French,  460, 

Paper,  308,  369. 

102  ;  extracts  from, 

467  ;  Roman,  244  ; 

Papy'ri,  7. 

105-107. 

Teutonic,  226. 

Paris,  348;   schools  of, 

Perioe'ci,  48. 

Nominalism,  304. 

329;  peace  of,  444, 

Perseus,  166. 

Normans,  293,  297. 

502  ;  and  Versailles 

Persian  wars,  73  et  seq. 

Normandy,  298. 

(ver-salz'),  treaties 

Perugino  (pa-roo-jee'- 

Northmen  (see  Danes 

of,  446. 

no),  365. 

and  Normans). 

Parisians,  297. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  319. 

INDEX. 


553 


Peter's,  St.,  414. 

Polish  succession,  war 

Quintil'ian,  208. 

Petition  of  Right,  433. 

of,  443. 

Pe'trarch,  360. 

Po'lo,  Marco,  357. 

Rabelais  (ra'-be-la), 

Pharsa'lia,  174,  187. 

Polyb'ius,  163. 

411. 

Phi  '(lias,  99. 

Polygno'tus,  99. 

Racine  (riSAseen),  453. 

PhiMon,  52. 

Polycle'tus,  99. 

Raleigh  (raw'li),  408; 

Philip  of  Macedon,  115, 

Pompeii,  197. 

extract  from,  422. 

117. 

Pompey,  173,  174,  176. 

Rame'ses  II.,  6. 

Philip  Augustus,  320, 

Pope,  290,  337,  343,  344. 

Ra'phael,  365,  412. 

321,  328. 

Pope,  Alexander,  452. 

Rastadt  (rastat),  treaty 

Philip  II.  of  Spain,  404. 

Porphyry,  211. 

of,  442. 

Philippi,  174. 

Praetor,  134,  157. 

Ra'zl,  or  Rha/zes,  302. 

"  Philippics,"  97,  116. 

Praetorian  guard,  195, 

Realists,  304. 

Philosophy,  Greek,  266  ; 

203. 

Real  Presence  (see 

inductive,  419  ;  Pla- 

Pragmatic Sanction, 

Transubstantiation). 

tonic,  419  ;  eighteenth 

444. 

Reform  bill  of  1832, 

century,  453-455. 

Praxiteles,  99. 

510. 

Phoenicians,  79.     (See 

President,  French,  495. 

Reformation,  398,  422- 

study  on.) 

Priestley,  455. 

427,  432  ;  in  England, 

Picts'  wall,  200. 

Prime  Minister,450,  492. 

407;  in  Scotland,  409. 

Pilgrims,  294,  296. 

"  Principia,"  452. 

Reichstag  (riks-tak), 

"  Pilgrim's  Progress," 

Printing,  368. 

498. 

451. 

Proconsul,  157. 

Reign  of  Terror,  477. 

Pin'dar,  99.     , 

Proco'pius,  260. 

Iiem'brandt,  413. 

Pisis'tratus  and  Pi- 

Protectorate,  447. 

Restoration,  English, 

sis'  tratids,  65-69, 

Protestants,  399. 

448. 

77. 

Protestantism,  404. 

"  Retreat  of  the  Ten 

Pitt,  453. 

Provinces,  Roman,  157, 

Thousand,"  100. 

IVus  II.,  361. 

194,  195,  217. 

Revolution,  Italian,  601, 

Pizar'ro,  404,  418. 

Prussia,  294,  352,  442, 

525-528;  Spanish, 

Plated,  86. 

522. 

501,525;  of  1688, 

Pla'to,  99. 

Ptolemies,  121,  122,  125. 

450. 

Plautus,  163. 

Ptolemy,  209. 

Richard  I.  of  England, 

PlebGi'ans,  130,  146. 

Punic  wars,  153  et  seq. 

320,  324,  328. 

Pliny  the  Elder,  208; 

Puritans,  408,  432. 

Richelieu  (resh-eh-loo), 

the  Younger,  209  ; 

Pyd'na,  156,  168. 

406. 

extracts  from,  216. 

Pym,  409. 

Rk'ii'zi,  Co'iadi,  360. 

Plutarch,  209. 

Pyramids,  9. 

Roads,  Roman,  139,  154, 

Poitiers  (poyteers'), 

Pyr'rhS,  126. 

171,  176,  185. 

346,  391. 

Pythag'oras,  52. 

Robespierre  (ro'-bCs-pe- 

Poland,  321,  343,  352, 

Pythian  games,  50. 

air),  477,  478. 

513  ;  partitions  of, 

Roger  of  Hovedm,  o'-'H. 

445,484.                        1  Quadruple  Alliance,  443. 

Rollo,  297,  303. 

554 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTOEY. 


Roman  Republic,  mod- 

Scotland, 350,  351  ; 

Slavs,  227,  294. 

ern,  479,  526. 

united  with  England, 

Sleswig,  294. 

Roses,  wars  of,  352. 

450. 

Smith,  Adam,  452. 

Rouma/nia,  505. 

Sedan',  504. 

Sobies'ki,  441. 

Rousseau  (roo-so^^SS; 

Seleuc'idae,  121,  126. 

Social  war,  171. 

extracts  from,  471. 

Sen'lac,  299. 

Socialism,  507,  608,  523, 

Royal  Society,  457. 

Senate,  French,  Greek, 

534-539. 

Rubicon,  185. 

etc.,  see  Constitutions. 

Socialist  Laborer  Party, 

Rudolf  of  Hapsburg, 

Sen'eca,  208. 

536. 

343. 

SCnnaeh'erib,  17. 

Soc'rates,  100;  extracts 

Rys'wick,  peace  of, 

Sensationalists,  French, 

from,  107-110. 

441. 

454;  extracts  from, 

Solemn  League  and 

472. 

Covenant,  409,  436, 

Sadow'a,  503,  522,  528. 

Septim'ius  Seve'rus, 

448. 

Saint  (for  saints,  see 

203. 

Solferino,  503,  527. 

respective  names,  as 

Septu'agint,  126. 

So'lon,  52,  54,  63,  143. 

Ambrose,  Augustine, 

Servia,  505. 

Sophist,  97,  114. 

etc.). 

Servius  Tullius,  132. 

Soph'ocles,  100.    ' 

SaFadin,  320,  324,  328. 

SesoVtris,  6. 

SozQm'en,  240. 

Salamis,  77,  78,  83,  84. 

Seven  Years'  war,  444. 

Spain,  155,  157. 

SaFlust,  176. 

Sicily,  152-154,  181,  182, 

Spanish  Armada,  405, 

SaFvian,  240;  extracts 

293,322,343,404,443. 

428. 

from,  248. 

Sicilies,  the  Two,  344, 

Spanish  Succession, 

Samnite  war,  138,  139. 

403,  443. 

war  of,  441,  442. 

San  Stefan'o,  peace  of, 

Sido'nius,  Apollina/ris, 

"  Spectator,"  453. 

505. 

St.,  240. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  410. 

Sappho  (saf'o),  52. 

Silesia,  444. 

Sphynx,  5. 

Sardanapa'lus,  17. 

Simeon  StyFites,  St., 

Spino'za,  454. 

Sardinia,  152,  155,  442, 

240. 

Spires,  diet  of,  399. 

443. 

Simon'ides,  100. 

States-general,  336,  346, 

Savonarola,  365. 

Simon  of  Montfort,  323, 

406,  466,  475. 

Savoy,  442,  478. 

357. 

Stein  (stine),  487-490. 

Saxons,  255. 

Simon  (see'mon),  St., 

StCskjho'rus,  52. 

Saxon  Heptarchy,  298. 

extracts  from,  534. 

StiFioho,  233,  240. 

Schism  of  the  Church, 

Sistine(sis/teen)Chapel, 

Stoicism,  203,  206,  217. 

293. 

412. 

Strasbourg.  234,  440, 

Schism  of  the  West, 

Sco'pas,  100. 

441. 

344. 

Slaves,  in  antiquity,  48, 

Strate'gl,  70. 

Schleswig-Holstein 

130,  167,  170,  171,  173, 

Stuarts,  408,  442. 

(hol-stlne),  502,  503. 

244;   Teutonic,  225, 

Sueton'ius,  210. 

Scholasticism,  303,  327. 

226  ;  medieval,  268, 

Sulla,  171,  172,  173,  176, 

Scipios  (sip'i5ze),  155, 

270;  modern,  404,  442, 

180,  183. 

161,  163,  164. 

458,  509,  510. 

Switzerland,  343,  401. 

INDEX. 


555 


Taborites,  344. 

Trasime'ne-,  159. 

Van  Eycks  (Iks),  365. 

Tacitus,  210;  extracts 

Trebo'nian,  251,  260. 

Var'ro,  176. 

from,  213,  222. 

Tribunes,  135,  136. 

Venice  and  Venetians, 

Templars,  329. 

Triple  Alliance,  440. 

234,320,334,403,478, 

Ter'ence,  163. 

Triumvirate,  first,  174. 

504,  526,  527. 

Terpan'der,  52. 

Trojan  war,  35. 

Versailles  (versalz), 

Tertul'lian,  211. 

Troubadours  (troo'-ba- 

458  ;  convention  of, 

Test  act,  448,  510. 

doors),  367. 

504. 

Teutonic  Knights,  329, 

Trouveres  (troovairs'j, 

Vespasian,  197. 

352. 

367. 

Vico  (vee'ko),  455. 

Tha'les,  52. 

Troy,  35,  119,  212. 

Victor  Emmanuel,  526- 

Thanes,  291. 

"  Truce  of  God,"  298. 

531. 

Thebes  (theebz),  5,  86. 

Tudor,  352. 

Villafran'ca,  503,  527. 

Themis'tocles,  77,  78, 

Tuileries  (twee'leree), 

Villains,  289. 

83,  89,  100. 

414. 

Villehardouin  (vel-ar- 

Theod'oric  the  Great, 

Turks,  293,  296,  345,  399, 

doo-an'),  357. 

258,  260,  267. 

441,  443,  445,  501. 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da 

Theodo'sius,  232,  239, 

Turco-liussian  war,  505. 

(la-on-ard^  da  vin^ 

246. 

Turgot  (toorgS'),  465. 

chee),  412. 

Theodosian  code,  243, 

Turn-vereine  (fe-rin/- 

Virgil,  122,  208;  extracts 

268. 

eh),  489. 

from,  212. 

Theocritus,  126. 

Turpin's  Chronicle,  329. 

Visigoths,.  233,  235,250. 

Thermopylae,  80,  83. 

Twelve  Tables  (see  Ro- 

Vitru'vius, 208. 

Thes'pis,  52. 

man  law). 

Voltaire7,  452,  454,  464  ; 

Third  estate  (see 

Tyrtae'us,  52. 

extracts  from,  471. 

Estates). 

Tyler,  Wat,  360. 

Thirty  Tyrants,  114. 

Tyrants,  Greek,  50,  73. 

Wace  (vas),  328. 

Thirty  Years'  war,  400. 

Tyre,  23,  24,  27. 

Wager  of  battle,  380. 

Thugs,  510. 

WaVam,  481. 

Thucyd'ides,  100. 

Ul'filas,  239. 

Waldenses  (wall-den'- 

Tiberius  Csesar,  196. 

Ul'pian,  211. 

ses),  322. 

Titus,  196. 

Ultramon'tanists,  523. 

Wales,  350. 

Tigliith-Pile'ser,  17  ; 

United  Provinces  of 

Wallace,  Sir  William, 

extract  from,  18. 

Netherlands,  401. 

350,  361. 

Tilsit,  peace  of,  481,  486. 

Universities,  366,  414  ; 

Wal'lenstein,  400. 

Tours  (toor),  battle  of, 

Bologna,  366  ;  Ger- 

" War  of  Liberation," 

254. 

man,  501,  615,  518; 

483,  490. 

Towns  (charters),  340, 

of  Paris,  366. 

Wartburg  festival,  515. 

341. 

Utrecht  (utrekf), 

Waterloo,  483. 

Trafalgar',  481. 

treaty  of,  442. 

Wesleys,  458. 

Trajan,  199,  216,  217. 

Westphalia,  treaty  of, 

Transubstantiation,  304, 

Vandals,  233. 

401. 

425,  426. 

Vandyck',  414. 

Whitehall,  414. 

556 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


Wiclif,  351,  361  ;  ex- 

William of  Poitiers,  305. 

York,  House  of,  352. 

tracts  from,  385. 

Wit/enagem5t,  291. 

Wilberforce,  458. 

Wolsey,  407. 

Za'ma,  155. 

William  the  Conqueror, 

Worcester,  447. 

Za'ra,  320. 

291,  299,  305. 

Worms,  diet  of,  399. 

Zos'imus,  240  ;  extracts 

William  of  Jumieges 

from,  248. 

(zhoo-mi-azh'),  305. 

Xenoph'anes,  52. 

Zwingli  (tswing'leej, 

William  and  Mary,  450. 

Xen/ophon,  100. 

399. 

William  of  Orange,  405. 

Xerxes,  77-81. 

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master's  skill  and  with  the  utmost  clearness  and  simplicity  .         .      1.20 

Meiklejohn's  English  Grammar.    Also  composition,  versification, 

paraphrasing,  etc.      For  high  schools  and  colleges         ...        .80 

Meiklejohn's  History  of  the  English  Language.     78  pages.    Part 

III.  of  English  Language,  above 30 

Williams'  Composition  and  Rhetoric  by  Practice.  For  high 
school  and  college.  Combines  the  smallest  amount  of  theory  with 
an  abundance  of  practice.  Revised  edition 90 

Strang's  Exercises  in  English.     Examples  in  Syntax,  Accidence, 

and  Style  for  criticism  and  correction 35 

Hempl's  Old  English  Grammar  and  Reader.     In  press. 

Huffcutt's  English  in  the  Preparatory  School.  Presents  as  prac- 
tically as  possible  some  of  the  advanced  methods  of  teaching  Eng- 
lish grammar  and  composition  in  the  secondary  schools  .  .  .25 

Woodward's  Study  of  English.     Discusses  English  teaching  from 

primary  school  to  high  collegiate  work 25 

Gervung's  Study  of  Rhetoric.    Shows  the  most  practical  discipline 

of  students  for  the  making  of  literature          .....       .25 

In  addition  to  the  above  we  have  text-books  in  English  and  American 
Literature,  and  many  texts  edited  for  use  in  English  Literature  classes. 


D.  C.  HEATH  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS. 

BOSTON,  NEW  YORK  &  CHICAGO. 


English   Literature. 

Hawthorne  and   Lemmon's  American  Literature.        A  manual 

for  high  schools  and  academies §1.12 

Meiklejohn's  History  of  English  Language  and  Literature. 
For  high  schools  and  colleges.  A  compact  and  reliable  state- 
ment of  the  essentials  ;  also  included  in  Meiklejohn's  English 
Language  (see  under  English  Language) 80 

Meiklejohn's    History  of  English  Literature.     116  pages.     Part 

IV.  of  English  Literature,  above 40 

Hodgkins'  Studies  in  English  Literature.  Gives  full  lists  of  aids 
for  laboratory  method.  Scott,  Lamb,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge, 
Byron,  Shelley,  Keats,  Macaulay,  Dickens,  Thackeray,  Robert 
Browning,  Mrs.  Browning,  Carlyle,  George  Eliot,  Tennyson,  Ros- 
setti,  Arnold,  Ruskin,  Irving,  Bryant,  Hawthorne,  Longfellow, 
Emerson,  Whittier,  Holmes,  and  Lowell.  A  separate  pamphlet 
on  each  author.  Price  5  cts.  each,  or  per  hundred,  $3.00;  com- 
plete in  cloth  (adjustable  file  cover  $1.50) i.oo 

George's  Wordsworth's  Prelude.     Annotated  for  high  school  and 

college.     Never  before  published  alone.         .....       1.25 

George's  Selections   from  Wordsworth.      168  poems  chosen  with 

a  view  to  illustrate  the  growth  of  the  poet's  mind  and  art      .         .      1.50 

George's    Wordsworth's    Prefaces  and  Essays  on  Poetry.     In 

press 
George's  Burke's  American  Orations.     Boards,  4oc.     cloth  .         .        .60 

Corson's    Introduction    to    Browning.     A   guide  to  the  study  of 

Browning's  Poetry.     Also  has  33  poems  with  notes      .         .         .       1.50 

Corson's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Shakespeare.       A  critical 

study   of    Shakespeare's  art,  with   examination   questions  .      1.50 

Corson's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Milton.  In  press. 
Corson's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Chaucer.  In  press. 
Hempl's  Old  English  Grammar  and  Reader.  In  press. 

Cook's  Judith.  The  Old  English  epic  poem,  with  introduction,  trans- 
lation, glossary  and  fac-simile  page 1.50 

Cook's  English  Prose  Style  and  the  English  Bible.     In  Press. 

Simonds'  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  and  his  Poems.     168  pages.     With 

biography,  and  critical  analysis  of  his  poems 75 

Hall's  Beowulf.      A  metrical  translation.     In  press. 

See  also  our  list  of  books  for  the  study  of  the  English  Language. 


D.  C.  HEATH  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS. 

BOSTON,  NEW  YORK  &  CHICAGO. 


Why  should  Teacher  s 


/Dormice*  no  man  can  s^and  high  in  any  profession  who   is  not  familiar 
•      Because  uith  its  nistory  and  literature. 

9      Re>rn  I/CP  '*  saues  time  wflich  might  be  wasted  in  trying  experiments  that 
*•    Because  haue  alreaay  been  tried  and  found  useless.      " 

Compayre'S  History  Of  Pedagogy.  "  The  best  and  most  comprehensive 

history  of  Education  in  English."  —  Dr.  G.  S.  HALL  ......  $i.7S 

Compayr6'S  Lectures  on  Teaching.  "  The  best  book  in  existence  on 

the  theoryand  practice  of  Education."  —  Supt.  MACALLISTER,  Philadelphia.  .  1.75 

Gill's  System  Of  Education.  "  It  treats  ably  of  the  Lancaster  and  Bell 

movement  in  Education  —  a  very  important  phase."  —  Dr.  W.  T.  HARRIS.  .  1.25 

RadestOCk'S  Habit  in  Education.  "  It  will  prove  a  rare  '  find  '  to  teach- 
ers who  are  seeking  to  ground  themselves  in  the  philosophy  of  their  art."  — 
E.  H.  RUSSELL,  Worcester  Normal.  .  .......  0.75 

Rousseau's  Emile.  "  Perhaps  the  most  influential  book  ever  written  on  the 

subject  of  Education."  —  R.  H.  QUICK.  ........  0.90 

Pestalozzi's  Leonard  and  Gertrude.    "  If  we  except  '  Emile'  only,  no 

more  important  educational  book  has  appeared,  for  a  century  and  a  half,  than 

'  Leonard  and  Gertrude.'"—  The  Nation  ........         0.90 

Richter's  Levana  ;  or  the  Doctrine  of  Education.  "A  spirited 

and  scholarly  book."—  Prof.  W.  H.  PAYNE  ........         1.40 

Rosmini'S  Method  in  Education.  "  The  most  important  pedagogical 

work  ever  written."  —  THOMAS  DAVIDSON  ........         1.50 

Malleson's  Early  Training  of  Children.  "  The  best  book  for  mothers 

I  ever  read."  —  ELIZABETH  P.  PEABODY  ........        0.75 

Hall's  Bibliography  of  Pedagogical  Literature.  Covers  every 

department  of  Education.      .         ..........         1.50 

Peabody's  Home,  Kindergarten  and  Primary  School  Educa- 
tion. "The  best  book  outside  of  the  Bible  I  ever  read."  —  A  LEADING 
TEACHER  ...............  i.oo 

NeWSholme'S  School  Hygiene.  Already  in  use'  in  the  leading  training 

colleges  in  England  .............  0.75 

DeGarmo's  Essentials  of  Method.  "  It  has  as  much  sound  thought  to 
the  square  inch  as  anything  I  know  of  in  pedagogics."  —  Supt.  BALLIET, 
Springfield,  Mass  .............  0.65 

Hall's  Methods  Of  Teaching  History.  "  Its  excellence  and  helpful- 

ness ought  to  secure  it  many  readers."  —  The  Nation  ......  1.50 

Seidel'S  Industrial  Education.  "  It  answers  triumphantly  all  objections 
to  the  introduction  of  manual  training  to  the  public  schools."  —  CHARLES  H. 
HAM,  Chicago  ..............  0.90 

Badlam's  Suggestive  Lessons  on  Language  and  Reading. 

•  "The  book  is  all  that  it  claims  to  be  and  more.  It  abounds  in  material  that 
will  be  of  service  to  the  progressive  teacher."  —  Supt.  DUTTON,  New  Haven.  1.50 

Redway's  Teachers'  Manual  of  Geography.  "  Its  hints  to  teachers 
are  invaluable,  while  its  chapters  on  '  Modern  Facts  and  Ancient  Fancies  '  will 
be  a  revelation  to  many."—  ALEX.  E.  FRYE,  Author  of  "The  Child  in 
Nature."  ..............  0.65 

Nichols'  Topics  in  Geography.  "Contains  excellent  hints  and  sug- 

gestions of  incalculable  aid  to  school  teachers."  —  Oakland  (Col.)  Tribune.  .  0.65 


D.  C.  HEATH  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

BOSTON,    NEW   YORK   AND  CHICAGO. 


